Francis Bacon – On Fools and Troubles
The shepherds of the people ought to be aware of the calendar of state storms; they are usually the greatest when a state of equality arises, just as natural storms are greatest during the equinox. Just as a storm is announced by muffled gusts of wind and the silent swelling of the sea, so it is in states:
Ille etiam caecos instare tumultus Saepe, monet, fraudesque et operta tumescera bella. (He warns that hidden tumults and treacherous wars are often approaching.)
When slander and unrestrained speeches against the state are frequent and open, and likewise false news that often circulate to the detriment of the state and are quickly embraced, they are signs of unrest. Vergil, giving a genealogy of Rumor, says that she is the sister of giants:
Illam terra parens, ira irritata deorum, Extremam ut perhibent Caeo Enceladoque sororem Progenuit. (Earth, mother of all, angered by the gods, is said to have given birth to Rumor as the last offspring, sister to Enceladus and Caeus.)
As if rumors were remnants of past troubles; but they are indeed no less an indication of future unrest. They are coming. However, he accurately observes that rebellious riots and rebellious rumors differ only as much as brother and sister, male and female; especially if it comes to the point where the best state actions and the most commendable ones, which should create the greatest satisfaction, are taken as evil and slandered. Because then it indicates a great hatred, as Tacitus says: “Great envy, whether good or bad actions, crush the most.” (… and once a hated ruler brings equal hatred, whether good or bad actions.) But it does not follow from this that harsh suppression of rumors, because they are a sign of unrest, is a cure for unrest. Disdain often best suppresses them, while the attempt to stop them only makes rumors more lasting. Likewise, one should be suspicious of the kind of obedience that Tacitus speaks of: “They were in office, but still preferred to interpret the orders of the rulers rather than execute them.”; arguing, justice. To complain about orders and regulations is a form of breaking free from the yoke, an attempt at disobedience, especially when those who speak timidly and without confidence are in favor of executing the orders, while those who are against it speak boldly.
Similarly, as Machiavelli astutely observes, when rulers, who should be like common parents, become like factions and lean towards one side, it is like a ship capsizing due to unevenly distributed weight. This was clearly seen during the time of King Henry III of France, who first joined the league to eradicate Protestants, only for the same league to turn against him. Because when the authority of the ruler becomes merely a means to an end, and when there are other ties that bind stronger than the ruler’s authority, kings are dethroned.
Likewise, when discord, disputes, and factionalism are openly and boldly expressed, it is a sign that the government has lost respect. For the movement of the highest individuals in the government should be like the movement of planets. And under the primum mobile (according to the old belief), which means that each of them is carried away spiritedly when the movement is caused by the highest impulse, and slowly when the impulse comes from itself. Therefore, when the nobles move vigorously in their own actions and, as Tacitus rightly says, liberius quam ut imperantium meminissent (too boldly and openly, so as to be able to believe that they think of their masters), it is a sign that the spheres have deviated from their framework. For respect is what God has surrounded rulers with, threatening to loosen it: Solvam cingula regum (I will loosen the belts of kings).
Thus, when any of the four pillars of rule is strongly shaken or weakened (faith, justice, counsel, and treasury), people should pray for good weather. But let us move on from this part about predictions (which can still be learned more from what follows) and speak first about the circumstances that lead to rebellion, then about the causes, and finally about how to treat them.
As for the circumstances that lead to rebellion, the most common ones are poverty, oppression, injustice, and deprivation. Water leads to a revolt, which is something that needs to be carefully considered; because the most reliable way to prevent riots (if weather allows) is to remove what causes them. Because if the fuel is prepared, it is difficult to say where the spark that will ignite it will come from. The circumstances that cause riots are twofold: extreme poverty and dissatisfaction. Because as many estates go bankrupt, there are as many voices for unrest. Lukan observes the state in Rome before the civil war well, “Hinc usura vorax, rapidum que in tempore goenus, Hinc concussa fides, et multis utile bellum.” (Here devouring usury and fast opportunity, here shaken trust and war beneficial to many.)
This same “multis utile bellum” is a sure and infallible sign of a state threatened by riots and unrest. And if the impoverishment and ruin of the higher classes join forces with scarcity and poverty among the lower classes, the danger is immediate and great. Because stomach revolts are the worst. As for dissatisfaction, it is in the political body like unhealthy secretions in the physical body. bodily conditions that are prone to accumulating unnatural heat and causing inflammation. And let no ruler measure the danger of dissatisfaction based on whether it is justified or unjustified, for that would imply thinking that the people are too reasonable, while they often disdain their own well-being; nor based on whether the injustices that provoke it are truly significant or petty: for the most dangerous dissatisfactions are those where fear is stronger than knowledge: Dolendi modus, timendi non item. (Suffering has limits, but fear does not.) Moreover, in times of great oppression, the very thing that prompts patience also diminishes courage, but not fears. And let no ruler or state feel secure amidst dissatisfaction just because it has occurred frequently or lasted long without any danger arising: for just as it is true that not every haze or cloud turns into a storm, it is equally true that storms, although they may dissipate in different circumstances, can still eventually unleash their fury; as the Spanish saying goes As the proverb goes: “The weakest flick breaks the rope in the end.”
Causes and triggers of rebellions are: religious changes; taxes; changes in laws and customs; abolition of privileges; general oppression; promotion of unworthy individuals; newcomers; scarcity; discharged soldiers; desperate political parties; and everything that, by offending the people, unites and connects them in a common cause.
As for how to cure it, there are some general remedies that we will discuss; and as for the real cure, it must correspond to the specific disease, so it is better to leave it to a council rather than rules.
The first remedy or protection consists of removing, in every possible way, the circumstances that cause the mentioned rebellions, namely, scarcity and poverty in the country. For this purpose, free and balanced trade is used; encouragement of crafts; expulsion of laziness; suppression of extravagance and abundance by laws that limit wastefulness; cultivation of land; regulation of prices of goods sold; s reducing taxes and fees, and so on. In general, it is important to ensure that the population of the kingdom (especially if it is not decimated by wars) does not exceed the revenues of the kingdom, which are necessary to sustain it. And the population should not be measured only by numbers; because a smaller number that spends more and earns less quickly depletes the state more than a larger number of people who live modestly and save. Therefore, multiplication of the nobility and other ruling classes in disproportionate numbers to the common people quickly creates scarcity in the state; the same happens with an overly large clergy because it contributes nothing to the country’s revenues; and the same occurs when there are more educated individuals than available positions.
Likewise, since the increase in wealth of one country must depend on another (because whatever is gained somewhere, is lost elsewhere), it should be remembered that there are only three things that one nation can sell to another: natural products, processed goods, and transportation. So if these three wheels are in motion, wealth will flow in like a spring tide. And often, It happens that the material surpasses the work (the work was even better than the material), that processing and freight are more valuable than raw materials and enrich the country more, which is particularly noticeable among the Dutch, who have the best workers in the world.
Above all, it is important to ensure that wealth and money do not end up in the hands of a few individuals in the country. Otherwise, the country can thrive economically but still suffer from hunger. Money is like fertilizer, it is only beneficial if it is spread around. This is achieved primarily by suppressing, or at least firmly controlling, insatiable usury, monopolies over large pastures, and the like.
To remove discontentment, or at least the danger of it, every country has (as we know) two types of subjects: the nobility and the commoners. When one of these groups is dissatisfied, the danger is not great because commoners move slowly unless they are prompted by those from the higher social class. And that higher social class has insignificant power on its own, unless the people themselves are ready to move. The danger arises when the higher social class only… awaits the stirring of the waters among the common people, so that they too can express themselves. Poets tell us how the gods wanted to bind Jupiter, who, upon hearing this, sent for the powerful Briares to come to his aid, following Paladin’s advice. Undoubtedly, a vivid portrayal of how rulers can rely on the goodwill of ordinary people.
It is wise to allow for moderate freedom for complaints and unhappiness to be aired (as long as it does not involve excessive defiance or bravado). For those who return secretions back inside and make the wound bleed from within, they expose themselves to the danger of serious ulcers and detrimental inflammations.
Epimetheus’ role would better suit Prometheus when it comes to dissatisfaction, as there is no better protection against it. Epimetheus, when evil and troubles escaped, finally closed the lid and kept hope at the bottom of the chest. Indeed, skillfully and cleverly giving and nurturing hope, and guiding people from one hope to another, is one of the best means to counteract the poison of dissatisfaction. And that is a reliable sign of the wisdom of governance in its conduct. When human hearts can hold on with hope, if not with satisfaction; and when they can manage things in such a way that no evil seems so final, and there is no way out and no hope: and it is even easier to achieve because individuals and political parties are prone to delusion, or at least ostentatiously pretend to believe in it.
Similarly, preventive measures should be taken to ensure that there is no suitable person to whom the dissatisfied can turn or under whose leadership they can unite. By suitable person, I mean a person who is great and respected, who enjoys the trust of the dissatisfied side and towards whom they look, and who is himself dissatisfied with his own situation: such people should either be won over and reconciled with the state, quickly and appropriately, or confront them with others from the same party, so that they become their opponents and thus divide the good reputation they enjoy. Generally speaking, dividing and breaking up all parties and groups that are opposed to Division and mutual alienation among states, or at least the creation of distrust among them, is not the worst solution. Because the situation is hopeless if those who approve of state policies are consumed by discord and division, while those who oppose it are united and in agreement.
I have noticed that some jokes and harsh words spoken by rulers have ignited the fire of rebellion. Caesar did himself a great disservice with the statement, “Sulla nescivit literas, non potuit dictare” (Sulla was illiterate, so he couldn’t dictate.), as it completely killed the hope that people had that he would eventually relinquish his dictatorship. Galba destroyed himself with the sentence, “Legi a se militem, non emi” (I will hire, not buy soldiers.), as it deprived soldiers of hope for reward. Similarly, Prob’s statement, “Si vixero, non opus erit amplius Romano imperio militibus” (If I live, the Roman Empire will no longer need soldiers.), was an extremely hopeless speech for soldiers. And many others, similar words. Indeed, in sensitive matters and in challenging times, wise and prudent words are of utmost importance. Rulers must be careful about what they say, especially with such short statements, which fly like arrows in all directions and are believed to be shot from their hidden intentions. Because when it comes to long speeches, they are boring and not memorable.
In the end, let rulers, just in case, have one or preferably more people of military courage close to them who will suppress the rebellion at its inception. Because without that, when riots break out, there is usually more unrest at the court than is appropriate. And the state exposes itself to the danger Tacit spoke of: “And the disposition of their minds was such, that few would dare to attempt a most atrocious act, many could wish for it, and all would endure it.” (Such was the disposition that only a few dared to commit the worst crime, many desired it, and all allowed it). But let such individuals be reliable and reputable, not partisans or demagogues; likewise, let them correspond well with other nobles in the state, otherwise the cure will be worse than the disease.