< p>Ever since she “set sail on the waters of Thales,” the philosopher from the shores of the Ionian Sea known as the father of Greek philosophy, Greek philosophical thought, with minor changes in direction, continues to participate in shaping the image of the Western world today. The phenomenon that began in Greece in the 7th and 6th centuries BC will be recorded in the history of philosophy as the beginning of Greek philosophy or the pre-Socratic period. p>
< p>At that time, Greek thought emerged from the world of Orphic mystery and the rich mythological tradition described in Homer’s and Hesiod’s epics, and with the appearance of the pre-Socratics, it gained a rational interpretation and a general desire to rationally penetrate the secrets of the world and nature in general. It should be emphasized that the Greeks did not understand Nature solely as its material manifestation, but they experienced Nature as the Cosmos – an organized and orderly world based on natural laws, while they understood humans as a reflection of that great Cosmos, the macrocosm, or as Democritus first defined it – humans as beings capable of rational thinking and philosophical inquiry. krocosmos.
Being aware of the fact that nature around them is subject to constant changes, the pre-Socratics search for that permanent, unique beginning from which Nature “springs”, in other words, they embark on a quest for Being. So, the fundamental themes of their philosophy are precisely Being and its manifestations, and movement.
The common characteristic of all pre-Socratics, and at the same time what makes our understanding difficult, is primarily their language. Namely, they expressed their doctrines in a symbolic and very enigmatic language that irresistibly resembles the language of oracles in Delphi and Dodona. It is a language full of allegories and opaque parables that suggest more than they tell.
If we also consider the fact that the majority of their works have been preserved only fragmentarily and indirectly, as commentaries and reviews by later philosophers, the problem of reconstructing and interpreting their teachings represents an extremely complex and difficult task.
Atomists
Ancient atomism is the work of Leucippus and his disciple
Democritus of Abdera is considered the founder of atomism, followed by later thinkers such as Epicurus and the Roman poet-philosopher Lucretius. Although they lived during the mature period of pre-Socratic philosophy and were contemporary with Socrates, we include them in the pre-Socratic period because of their main themes: the nature of Being and its manifestations, as well as the problem of motion.
Scanty historical materials that have survived the test of time provide us with limited insight into the life of Leucippus, the founder of atomism. According to some sources, Leucippus was born in Miletus, while others claim that he was born in the city of Abdera in Asia Minor. He traveled extensively and is often associated with the Eleatic school, where he attended the lectures of Zeno.
He returned to Abdera, founded a school, and began his atomistic teachings, introducing the concepts of atoms and the “void” or “emptiness”. Later, his student Democritus embraced and developed the atomic doctrine.
Democritus is typically believed to have been born in 460 BC, and he continued the work of Leucippus. m Democritus wrote in his famous work “The Small World Order” that he was young during the old age of the great pre-Socratic philosopher Anaxagoras.
Although most authors agree that Democritus lived to a ripe old age, the end of his life is very unclear and mysterious, enveloped in various legends.
It is an undisputed historical fact that he was a student of Leucippus, while some sources add that his teacher was also Anaxagoras, and that he attended the lectures of Philolaus, a famous follower of Pythagorean teachings.
Democritus was born into a very wealthy and influential family in Thracian Abdera, and after his father’s death, he inherited a great fortune which he spent traveling to various centers of learning in the world at that time. Like Solon, Pythagoras, and Plato, he visited Egypt, Persia, and Babylon, where he received instruction from magi and priests. Sources from a later period testify that he visited Ethiopia and met with Indian sages. After many years of traveling and learning, he gained insight into the entirety of knowledge in his time. Democritus returns to Abdera. He dedicates himself to further research and writing his extensive opus, living a very secluded life, surrounded by his closest disciples, or as he himself said: “I came to Athens and no one recognized me.”
Due to the amount of written works and exceptional erudition, Democritus is often compared to Aristotle, who commented on his work by saying: “He seems to have thought about everything.”
The famous ancient doksograph Diogenes Laertius classified Democritus’ writings based on the catalog of the library of Alexandria, in which the works of the ancient atomist were divided into: ethical, natural science, mathematical, musical, and technical, along with unclassified works.
The largest number of works were related to natural science, among which the most prominent are “The Great Order of the World” and “The Small Order of the World,” which we cannot attribute with certainty to Democritus because it is difficult to distinguish his works from those of his teacher Leucippus. The encyclopedic opus of the Abderanian covers numerous topics, including poetics. The melody and plasticity of his style enchanted even the famous Roman orator Cicero.
Democritus’ writings disappear very early on, so even Aristotle, with the intention of systematizing pre-Socratic teachings, laments that most of their original works are lost and that he has to rely on compilations and various commentaries.
Unfortunately, only about three hundred fragments and three hundred or so later commentaries have been preserved from the entire Democritean Corpus.
Atomic theory
Parmenides, a distinguished representative of the Eleatic school, introduces the concept of Being into philosophy, which is present in all things and makes them exist. He does not observe things themselves, but seeks the hidden principle or Being. Parmenides defined Being as complete, uncreated, unchangeable, and unmoving, and the problem of its manifestation and movement will present a challenge for the entire history of philosophy. All later pre-Socratic schools tried to provide answers to questions related to the ways in which Being manifests itself. is oneness, and at the same time multiple, and how is movement possible if Being is immovable. In order to explain the manifestation of Being, Empedocles will introduce four elements, Anaxagoras homoeomeries, and Leucippus and Democritus invisible and indivisible tiny particles known as atoms.
The word atom comes from the Greek word atomos, which means indivisible, and in the atomic doctrine, it represents the smallest material particle within the unique and limitless Being of Parmenides.
According to Democritus’ teachings, atoms are particles that, in addition to being indivisible, are eternal, unchanging, indestructible, and unborn.
Atoms exist and move in empty space or non-Being, where, self-moved, they have been joining together in various ways since ancient times, forming numerous shapes.
Democritus states that the differences among atoms are not qualitative but only quantitative. Therefore, they differ in form, order, and position, or as Aristotle explains in his work Metaphysics: A is different from N in form, AN from NA in order Oh, and Z with the position of N.
Although they have the same quality, atoms differ in their density, or subtlety (fineness), so that solid bodies are composed of rough, hook-shaped atoms, while liquid or gaseous bodies are made up of finer, round atoms.
Democritus records that even the human soul is composed of atoms, but of extremely fast, subtle, and round ones, similar to Fire.
Therefore, shape, arrangement, position, size, and subtleness are objective properties of atoms that we cannot perceive with our senses, but when an atom connects with other atoms, an illusion is created that we perceive through secondary characteristics of the body (object) – color, taste, temperature.
According to opinion, color, according to opinion, sweet, according to opinion, bitter, but in truth atoms and void. (fr. 125)
Democritus adds that bodies and objects emit so-called images (eidola) made up of very subtle atoms, and these images are perceived by the senses as secondary characteristics through which we create our own impressions. opinion. Because of this, Democritus, like Parmenides, argues that we cannot reach Truth through our senses and distinguishes between two types of knowledge: true and obscure.
Obscure knowledge relies on the senses, it is insufficient and stops at the surface of appearances, leaving Truth hidden from us. We remain in the realm of opinion and become prisoners of our own delusions.
There are two types of knowledge: one true and the other obscure. Obscure knowledge includes sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch. The other, true knowledge, is completely different from it. When obscure knowledge is no longer able to see a very small object, or hear, smell, taste, or perceive with touch, but needs to investigate in detail, then true knowledge approaches, because it has a finer sense of understanding. (fragment 11)
Of Democritus’ extensive work, only about three hundred fragments have been preserved, and the largest number relates precisely to ethics. Democritus’ ethical stance emerged from a deep understanding of causes and is grounded in an irrevocable ethical code. He has inspired many great philosophers over the centuries. His ethical teachings are based on a permanent cheerfulness of spirit – eutymy, in order to achieve the highest good, happiness, i.e. bliss – eudaimonia.
Democritus’ entire ethics stems from a way of life that strives for “moderation in enjoyment and harmonization of life”, as well as “spiritual goods and virtuous acts”.
It is best for a person to spend their life as much as possible in a good mood and as little as possible in a bad mood. And it could be like that if he didn’t seek pleasure in transient things. (fr. 189)
It is more fitting for humans to care more for the soul than for the body, because the perfection of the soul corrects the weakness of the body, but the strength of the body without reason does not make the soul any better. (fr. 187)
As a means of achieving eutymy, Democritus emphasizes the correct measure and, like most wise men of ancient times, affirms the correctness of walking the “middle path”.
Spiritual cheerfulness comes to people from moderation in enjoyment and from harmony in life. For the lack and excessive Proportions usually change abruptly and cause great upheaval in the soul. And souls that move towards opposite extremes have neither stability nor cheerfulness. (fr. 191)
The famous Stoic philosopher Seneca, several centuries later, will be inspired by the deep ethical teachings of the Greek atomist and write: It will be useful to us that salvific Democritus doctrine which prescribes tranquility “if we do not undertake much in private or public life, or what is beyond our capabilities.”
Also, Democritus emphasizes that achieving eudaimonia requires effort and proper striving. He attributes an educative function to work, and proper striving enables surpassing one’s own limitations. Whoever seeks good finds it only through work, and evil is found even by those who do not seek it. (fr. 108) Noble things are acquired through diligent learning, while ignoble things are reaped effortlessly. (fr. 182)
As an important characteristic to adopt in order to achieve spiritual cheerfulness, Democritus emphasizes the fulfillment of duty. Duty. Usually, the concept of duty is interpreted in the context of stoic philosophy, but the importance it holds in the moral formation of a person can be deduced from the ethical fragments of the Abderanina.
Justice consists of fulfilling one’s duty, while injustice lies in neglecting it. (fr. 256) Abstain from sin, not out of fear, but out of duty. (fr. 41) It is a great thing to think about duty in times of hardship. (fr. 42)
From these ethical principles, a philosopher of strong character and cheerful spirit speaks, seeking happiness in enduring, humane values that are not a reflection of fashion or the transient world. It is justified that we find records of him as a “philosopher who laughs”.