“I know you still observe the abode and dwelling of humans. If it seems small to you, as it indeed is, always look at the celestial and despise the human: for what fame and glory can one hope to achieve among people? (…) Who in the far east or west, north or south will hear your name? (…) And even those who speak of us – how long will they speak? Even if future generations wanted to pass on the praises of each of us, which they heard from their fathers, due to the floods and burning of lands that inevitably occur at a certain time, we would not be able to achieve not only eternal, but also enduring glory. And what good is it that there will be stories about you among those who are born after you, when there were none about those who were born before you? (…) You should only strive and keep in mind that it is not you who is mortal, but the body. (…) Therefore, since it is clear that what moves itself is eternal, who can deny that such a nature is given to souls? For, without a soul, everything that moves by external stimuli is soulless.” Wow, that rises with internal and external movement. It is the nature and power inherent to the soul, and if it is the only thing that moves itself, then it is certainly not born and is eternal. You use it for the best things! Usually it is claimed that the Roman world, in a spiritual sense, is only a worse copy of the superior Greek world. The superiority of the Greek spirit is mentioned in philosophy, architecture, literature, and in culture in general. But Virgil tells us that these high achievements were not Rome’s mission; Rome’s mission is not to build wonderful monuments, nor pure art of rhetoric, nor to explore and precisely discover scientific truths: Rome is obliged to rule over nations, to give laws in peace, to protect citizens and to subjugate the arrogant who do not accept laws. In Scipio’s dream, in the sixth book of Cicero’s Republic, those who have worked the most and the best for the empire occupy a place next to the gods themselves. In this sense, Cicero is a true representative of the Roman spirit. He was born on January 3, 106 BC in the equestrian class. Eager for In his youth, full of curiosity and wisdom, he attended lectures by the academician Philo and befriended Mucius Scaevola, an augur, statesman, and senator who had a profound understanding of the law. By the age of eighteen, he served as a military tribune under the consul Gnaeus Pompeius during the Marsian War. To avoid the cruelty and anger of Sulla, who had initiated legal proceedings against Roscius, he sought refuge in Athens. Far away from the Forum and state affairs, he dedicated himself to a comprehensive study of Greek philosophy, particularly under Poseidonius. He studied rhetoric under the renowned orator Apollonius Molon. After some time, he returned to Rome to engage in state affairs. Thus, at the urging of his father and friends, he began practicing law. Having achieved remarkable success in the field, he was elected quaestor and assigned Sicily as his province. Later, he was appointed praetor. Both the people and the aristocracy singled him out as a candidate for consul in order to prevent Catalina from seizing the position. Afterwards, he was declare he earned the title of father of the country (pater patriae) because he prevented the Catilinian conspiracy without a civil war. However, his star soon began to fade: in the power struggle between Caesar and Pompey, he proved to be inconsistent and switched sides frequently. Believing that Caesar was turning his rule into a dictatorship, he withdrew from public affairs and dedicated himself to philosophy, philology, and the education of the youth. However, he still remained influential. Although he did not participate in the conspiracy against Caesar, he had a good relationship with Brutus, one of the conspirators. After Caesar’s assassination, he delivered a speech in the Senate in which he tried to secure amnesty for Brutus and Cassius to avoid a civil war. He also attempted to influence the nature and decisions of consul Antony when he realized that Antony was trying to establish himself as an autocrat, in an attempt to save the republic through some form of class harmony. Due to the failure in Antony’s case, he turned to Caesar’s successor, Octavian. However, in a series of political intrigues, Octavian sacrificed Cicero in a compromise with Antony. Thus, Cicero’s ideals were overcome by the lowest political pragmatism. The irony of fate wanted Cicero’s severed head and limbs to be exhibited in Rome before Antony himself, putting an end to his dream of the rebirth of the Roman Republic through Greek philosophy, Roman virtue, and the doctrine of the harmony of classes (concordia ordinum), which consists of embracing supreme moral principles. Of course, Roman history then took a completely different path, and instead of being a symbol of the rebirth and flourishing of the Republic, Cicero became its swan song.
True Human Duties
In his eclectic philosophy, Cicero advocates for both contemplative (vita contemplativa) and practical (vita activa) life because he believes that philosophy is primarily the guide of human life (dux vitae), thus the one that must teach humanity to live in a more just, noble, beautiful, and wise way. The same applies to the organization of the state; for the state to be more just, it must embrace all the good things found in Gr Sophia should choose what is best, what enables the most important endeavor: the revival of the Roman Republic through morality grounded in the insights of the best philosophers. This reveals the typical Roman spirit: originality lies in the selection of what is valuable, not in creating something completely new. But that is not the goal: the goal consists of disciplined and consistent practice of the chosen. This standpoint is confirmed by Cicero’s tumultuous life: all of his most important works were written during the interludes between acts of the great historical drama called Rome. Speaking in the very introduction of his Republic about those whose aim is theoretical knowledge for its own sake, he believes that “all their discussions, although they contain the richest sources of virtue and knowledge, I fear, when compared to what they have done and accomplished, will prove to have brought as much benefit to human affairs as entertainment for idleness.” Therefore, self-reflection (in the sense of moral action) as well as the welfare of the community (politics) are of the utmost importance. The fulfillment of duties. And all this is not possible without living virtuously because “It is not enough to have virtue like a skill if you cannot use it. Skill, however, can still be retained by knowledge alone, even if it is not used, but virtue is completely contained in its use….” It is therefore not surprising that at the very beginning of the work On Duties, it states: “Although philosophers have thoroughly and exhaustively treated many important and useful topics in philosophy, it seems that the most can be applied to what they have presented and handed down about moral duties. No stage of life can be devoid of moral duties, neither in public nor in private, neither at work nor at home, whether you are doing something alone or doing something with others; everything that is morally right in life rests on the fulfillment of duties, and everything that is morally wrong in their neglect.” With this, Cicero once again opened up the great theme of ancient philosophy: how fruitful can philosophy and its teachings be if they are not lived? Thus, by taking this perspective, Cicero continues to examine various specific duties and the ethical principles that govern them. r is often referred back to the Stoic philosopher Panetius and expands on the Stoic doctrine by asserting that philosophical principles should reflect on the entire human being, rather than just some of its aspects. Similarly, following Plato’s example, Cicero believes that man is not a one-dimensional being limited only to his physicality, but rather a complex entity composed of parts that exist in a specific hierarchical relationship. Both the physical and non-physical parts (such as the soul and spirit) together make up the human being. However, while man is composed of spirit, soul, and body, ancient philosophers primarily understood him as a being of spirit, referring to his true nature, that which truly makes him human. Unbridled physicality as the sole concern of the human being contributes to the weakness of the human soul, its corruption, essentially transforming it into an animal in human form. Thus, when discussing man, he is always linked to the divine, to that which transcends mere physical existence. As a physical and instinctive being, man The human soul resembles an animal in many ways, but it also has a part that transcends the animalistic nature. It has a mind through which it can understand its actions and, through virtues, control its instincts without suppressing them. Therefore, Cicero’s work On Duties is not merely moralizing and teaching about “how things should be but aren’t,” but rather serves as a guide for those who strive to rise above ordinary human limitations, in order to approach and embody what we consider truly humane. Because, “…there is no small power in Nature and reason that only humans feel what is right, what is appropriate, what measure is necessary in words and deeds. And so, no other being with the sense of sight feels the beauty, loveliness, and harmony of this world; how nature and reason carry this similarity from the visible to the realm of the spirit and determine that beauty, steadfastness, and order should be even more cherished in thoughts and actions, while ensuring that nothing unworthy or careless is done or even considered, neither in thought nor in action.” fall, in a dissolute manner. From all of this arises and achieves what we are exploring here, and that is moral goodness or what is honorable, which, even when not celebrated, is morally right, and when not praised by anyone – I responsibly claim – by its very nature is worthy of praise. That is why it is precisely duties that civilize a person and make them human, not some additional ornament; it is precisely duties that separate a person from an animal, as Cicero himself explained in great detail in several places; finally, these duties can be forgotten, ignored, or intentionally rejected. But only thanks to them can a person maintain their integrity, spirituality, and morality by which they are a human being.
In Praise of Philosophy
“The situation is such that the law, which should correct flaws and encourage virtues, should be derived from the teachings of life. Therefore, the mother of all that is good is wisdom, named philosophy in Greece out of love for it, and from which the immortal gods are not human. Who in life has given us anything richer, more fruitful, or more excellent. She alone has taught us what is most difficult: to know ourselves. The meaning is so great, the depth of these instructions so profound, that they are attributed not to any human, but to the Delphic god.
Those who know themselves will first feel that they possess something divine, they will consider their spirit sacred, and in their actions and thoughts there will always be something worthy of such a gift from the gods. And when they test themselves and explore themselves, they will understand how adorned by nature they have come into life, and how many means they have for acquiring and achieving wisdom.
For when the spirit, having learned and understood virtues, renounces its submission to the body, and discards base pleasure as an unclean stain, and removes all fear of pain and death, and forms alliances based on love with all those who are connected to it, and begins to worship the gods with pure faith, and finally sharpens its spiritual sharpness to the sharpness of vision so that it can choose the good and reject what is contradictory. can we say or think that is more blissful than that?
And when he looks at the sky, the earth, the sea, and the nature of all things, and sees where it all was born, where it will return one day, how it will perish, what is fragile and mortal in it and what is divine and eternal, and when he almost recognizes the one who governs and directs all of this, and thus recognizes himself not as a member of a specific place, closed within walls, but as a citizen of the whole world as one city – in that magnificent reality, oh immortal gods – how will he know and understand himself and how will he despise, how little he will value, how insignificant he will consider what the common people call the greatest…
When he feels that he is born for life in a civil community, he will not think that he should devote himself only to detailed discussions, but also to words that have lasting value. With them, he will govern nations, with them he will strengthen laws, with them he will punish the wicked, with them he will protect the good, with them he will praise famous men, with them he will convey instructions to his citizens about what they should do individually and collectively… It will provide them with security and praise, it will encourage them to be honorable, deter them from ugliness, comfort the unfortunate, and immortalize the deeds and thoughts of the brave and wise in eternal monuments.
There is so much and that is what those who want to know themselves see in a person, and the parent of all that is wisdom itself.”