Consider this in your hearts: if you strive with difficulty for anything noble, the struggle passes, but the noble deed endures; if you do anything shameful for the sake of pleasure, the pleasure passes, but the shame remains.
Although less known today, Gaius Musonius Rufus (circa 30 – circa 100 AD) forms, together with Epictetus, Marcus Aurelius, and Seneca, the fourfold core of the last great representatives of Roman Stoicism. He understood philosophy as the art of living well and rightly, thus focusing primarily on ethics. Because of his life in accordance with ethical principles, clarity of exposition, encouragement of virtue, and courage in facing the consequences of his own beliefs, he was called the “Roman Socrates.”
Today, he is mostly mentioned as the teacher of the famous Epictetus, but he was a leading Stoic in his time and enjoyed great moral reputation during his lifetime and in the early centuries of Christianity and late antiquity.
He was born in the city of Volsinii, present-day Bolsena in central Italy, into an Etruscan family of knightly status. . For his life, the crucial moments were his arrival in Rome and his friendship with many influential Romans from philosophical and political circles. Due to his alleged involvement in the Piso conspiracy, which aimed to overthrow the arrogant emperor, Nero exiled him to the barren Cycladic island of Gyaros in 65 AD, but he was later returned to Rome by the emperor Galba. Upon his return, he opened a philosophical school. Because of his advocacy for the old republican ideals and his criticism of the current authorities, the emperor Vespasian once again exiled him in 71 AD, along with other philosophers, only to have him invited back by the emperor Titus.
Remaining loyal to Stoic principles, he continuously taught philosophy and lived accordingly to its teachings. It was precisely for this reason that he was known and earned the undivided respect of his contemporaries. Philostratus mentions him in several places in “The Life of Apollonius of Tyana,” stating that he philosophized in the most excellent manner out of all. Early Christian writer Origen, along with Socrates, takes him as an example of an elevated life. Emperor Julian the Apostate also holds him in high regard. (331 – 363) he writes about him three centuries later in a couple of his letters and compares him to Socrates, noting that he became famous because he endured suffering [persecution] with dignity and endured the cruelty of tyrants with firmness.
It seems that he had a wide circle of listeners (fragment 49 speaks of his disapproval of applause after lectures); young and old came to listen to him, people of different professions and social status, from the future consul Gaius Minicius Fundanus to the slave Epictetus, and even the Syrian king is mentioned. He also had a smaller circle of students, the most famous of whom are Epictetus, Dion Chrysostom, Pliny the Younger, Euphrates of Tyre, Timocrates, and others. He formed close friendships with many, and even accompanied Rubellius Plautus into exile in Syria. He did not leave anything written, just like Socrates and Epictetus, but instead taught only through spoken word and example. Some of Musonius’ teachings were recorded by his students Lucius and Polion, which have been preserved in a transcription by a Byzantine writer from the 5th century. Ivana from Stobija3. It’s about debates, specifically his responses to questions posed by students. Another source are excerpts from the works of various ancient authors, mostly quotes, sketches, anecdotes, collected by Dutch philologist Jacobus V. Peerlkamp4 in 1822.
The revival of interest in the philosophy of Musonius Rufus has been most significantly contributed to in recent decades by French philosopher Pierre Hadot in his effort to restore to philosophy the meaning it had in antiquity, when it implied a way of life, specifically in the Roman context as honesti vivendi scientia – the science of honorable living. By delving into the lives and works of Epictetus, Marcus Aurelius, and Plotinus, he shed light on Musonius Rufus, who had a tremendous influence on his student. Epictetus continues his teachings and frequently refers back to Musonius’ words in his speeches, and also mentions his teaching style: As we sat before him, each of us had the feeling that someone had to reveal our weaknesses to him; with a He accurately hit our current states and pointed out their weaknesses in front of each of us. Conversations and debates were a crucial part of Muzonius’ teachings, but he constantly emphasized the need for practical application of learning. He tried to motivate his students to improve their character, rid them of hypocrisy, and return them to a simple life so that they could develop virtues inherent to humans, such as prudence, justice, moderation, and courage, in accordance with their own nature. The emphasis was on adopting a way of life, not just learning. As Hadot, an ancient philosopher, observes, in this case, Muzonius was more like a spiritual teacher than a present-day philosophy professor. This is understandable since the primary task of philosophy was to care for the soul. In the twenty-one preserved debates, Muzonius provides answers to a series of specific questions, such as: is theory or practice more important; should kings study philosophy; can we all live virtuously? What profession is suitable for a philosopher; should women engage in philosophy; that the troubles that befall a person should not be given great importance; that exile is not something bad; about a pension for old age, etc. It is interesting that he particularly focuses on the question of food and the act of dining, and considers the table to be the right place to practice moderation and self-control, while in clothing, housing, and furnishing houses, he advises getting rid of everything unnecessary. He speaks about the importance of a harmonious marriage community for a “good and civilized way of life” of the city and the human community as a whole. Many of his views are extremely progressive for that time; for example, he strongly advocates education and equal rights for men and women.
However, throughout all these discussions, the teaching about the four cardinal virtues is intertwined. He says that the seed of these virtues is inherent in every person, and they can be trained, just like the skill of playing a musical instrument, healing, or steering a ship. He emphasizes the need to strengthen these virtues in the soul of each individual in order to become honorable and educated. Dear citizens of the City of God… However, he places the acquisition of the ability to distinguish between the apparent and the real, between apparent goods and evils, in the first place. He advises not to strive for the former and not to avoid the latter, and that pleasure is not good and troubles are not evil.
Often citing Socrates, he emphasizes that philosophy must be visible in actions, expressed in concrete life situations, that it cannot be mere theorizing because philosophy is actually the practice of life and can only be beneficial in that way.
He advises compassionate understanding in all interpersonal relationships. He advocates for setting aside one’s own goods for those in need. Although he does not make concessions in any deviation from what is right and just, he still advises tolerance and forgiveness in dealing with those who do wrong. In the spirit of Socrates, he says that it is better to endure injustice than to commit it, but he adds that one should always be ready for forgiveness. Therefore, we must help those who err and those who need assistance. Understanding others helps us understand ourselves. Many of these teachings were taken by early Christian writers and incorporated into their developing philosophy.
More than nineteen centuries separate us from Musonius Rufus. Reading his responses to student questions, we cannot remain indifferent to the simple and clear wisdom of his words, which convincingly tell us that we can be better, more prudent, more just, more temperate and braver, to master ourselves, to need little and be fulfilled… His words, as relevant today as in the 1st century, and perhaps more necessary today than ever, are a powerful reminder of what is essential to strive for: the art of good and righteous living.
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On the practice of virtue
He always fervently urged those who listened to his teaching to apply it practically, using the following arguments. Virtue, he said, is not just theoretical knowledge, but also practical application, just like the art of healing and music. Therefore, just as a doctor and musician… Not only do they have to master the theoretical side of their skills, but they also have to practice in order to act in accordance with those principles. Similarly, a person who wants to become good not only has to be well acquainted with the teachings of virtue, but also has to be thoughtful and committed in applying those teachings. Indeed, how can someone become moderate immediately if they only know that one should not be controlled by pleasures but are quite inexperienced in resisting them? How can a person become just if they have learned to love justice but have never tried to avoid selfishness and greed? How can we acquire courage if we have only learned that we should not be afraid of things that seem terrifying to the average person, but have no experience showing courage when faced with something like that? How can we become prudent if we realize which things are truly good and which are evil but have never tried to reject those things that only appear to be good? … Therefore, after the teachings that correspond to each individual Oh virtues, practical exercise must always follow if we truly hope to reap any benefit from them.
… Since a human being is not just a soul or just a body, but a combination of both parts, the person receiving instruction must take care of both parts; the better part, the soul, more diligently, as it befits, but also the other part, if they do not want any part of them that makes up a person to be lacking. Because it is evident that the body of a philosopher needs to be well-prepared for physical activities, as virtues often use it as a necessary tool for life activities. Therefore, there are two types of training: one is suitable only for the soul, and the other is common for both the soul and the body. We use exercises that are common for both parts when we get accustomed to cold, heat, thirst, hunger, modest meals, hard beds, avoiding pleasures, and patience in suffering. Because with such and similar exercises, the body becomes stronger and capable of enduring hardships, it becomes resilient and ready for any task, while the soul becomes strengthened as well, as it Exercising courage involves patience in adversity and self-control in abstaining from pleasures. The inherent exercise of the soul consists primarily in always being ready with evidence that apparent goods are not real goods, and that apparent evils are not real evils; to learn to recognize what is truly good and to become accustomed to differentiating between good and what is truly not good. Furthermore, it consists of the practice of avoiding anything that appears evil and not striving for anything that appears good, avoiding in every way what is truly bad and striving in every way for what is truly good…
What is more effective, theory or practice?
On another occasion, the question arose among us whether practice or theory is more effective in acquiring virtue, assuming that theory teaches correct behavior, while practice represents the habit of those who have learned to behave according to such theory. Musonius believed that practice appeared more effective and, speaking in favor of this opinion, he once set forth to-
Consider the following question: “Let’s assume there are two doctors, one who is capable of giving brilliant lectures on medical knowledge but lacks experience in treating the sick, and the other, quite incompetent in public speaking but experienced in treating patients according to current medical knowledge. “If you were sick,” he asked, “which one would you choose to be with you?” The person asked answered that they would choose the doctor with experience in treatment.
Muzonius then continued: “Let’s take, therefore, another example of two men. One has sailed for a very long time and served as a helmsman on many ships, while the other has sailed very little and has never worked as a helmsman. If the one who has never helmed a ship spoke most skillfully about navigation methods, and the other very briefly and ineffectively, which one would you hire as a helmsman for a voyage?” The man said he would hire the experienced helmsman.
Muzonius continued again: “Let’s also consider the case of two musicians. One is knowledgeable in music theory and most persuasively discusses it, but is not able to sing or play the harp or lyre; the other is less skilled in theory, but masterfully plays the harp and lyre, as well as sings. Which one would you choose as a musician or which one would you like to have as a teacher for a child who doesn’t know about music?” The man replied that he would choose the one who is experienced in practice.
“Well, then,” said Musonius, “in terms of moderation and self-control, isn’t it much better to be able to control oneself and be moderate in everything than to be able to speak well about what should be done?” And the young man agreed that speaking well about self-control is of lesser importance and significance than actually demonstrating self-control. Summing up what was said, Musonius asked, “So, considering these conclusions, how could knowledge of theory about anything be better than practicing according to the principles of theory, if we understand that application enables a person to act, while theory makes him capable of talking about it?” Talking? The theory that teaches how to act is connected with its application and comes first, because it is not possible to do anything truly well if practical implementation is not in line with the theory. However, in effectiveness, practice surpasses theory because it is more influential in getting people to act.
“When a philosopher,” he said, “admonishes, convinces, scolds or discusses a certain aspect of philosophy, if the audience pours out the usual and cliché words of praise in their enthusiasm and spontaneity, if they even shout, gesture, if they are touched and excited and carried away by his beautiful words, the rhythm of his phrases and certain rhetorical repetitions, then know that both the speaker and his audience are wasting time and not listening to the philosopher speak, but to a flute player. For the mind of a person listening to a philosopher,” he said, “if useful things are presented and provide means to eliminate flaws and mistakes, there is no leisure and time for excessive and immoderate praise. The listener, whoever he may be, unless he has completely lost his mind, goblimegf Oral sensation, listening to the words of a philosopher, must tremble and feel inwardly ashamed and humbled, and then experience joy and wonder, and even change facial expressions and emotions as the philosopher’s speech affects him and touches the part of his own soul that is healthy and sick.
Furthermore, he used to say that great applause and admiration are not unrelated, but that the greatest admiration is more likely to provoke silence than words. Therefore, he said that the wisest poet did not have those who, while listening to Ulysses (Odyssey) telling them miraculous stories about his misfortunes, jumped and exclaimed their approval when he finished the story, but [Homer] says that they all fell silent as if they had been struck dumb and paralyzed because his words had captured their ears so much and taken away their power of speech.
“So he spoke, and they all fell silent and mute; they were all conquered by enchantment in that shadowy hall…”
(Homer, Odyssey, 13.1-2)
(fragment 49)
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“Muzonius is,” Herodes said [Herodes Aticus]. I, a Roman senator, “ordered that a beggar who is pretending to be a philosopher be given a thousand sesterces [silver coins], and when several people told him that this impostor is a bad and immoral man who does not deserve anything good, Musonius reportedly replied with a smile: ‘Well then, he deserves the money.'”
(fragment 50)
1 On that occasion, among many others, Seneca, the poet Lucan, and the satirist Petronius were sentenced to death.
2 According to some sources, he discovered a water source on the island and attracted numerous students and admirers with his teachings.
3 Ivan from Stobi, an ancient city near today’s Macedonian Demir Kapija, compiled an Anthology consisting of four books containing over five hundred excerpts from the works of Greek writers (on philosophy, physics, rhetoric, poetry, and politics).
4 C. Musonii Rufi Philosophi Stoici – Reliquiae et Apophthegmata.