Towards the end of his life, the great Roman statesman and philosopher Marcus Tullius Cicero (106 – 43 BC) turned away from his career in oratory and politics towards philosophy and religion, and in 45 BC he wrote the book “On the Nature of the Gods” (De Natura Deorum). In the form of a dialogue, Cicero confronts the opinions of the three prevailing philosophical schools of his time: the Epicureans, the Stoics, and the Academy of Athens. It is believed that the author’s position is represented by the Academic Cotta, the Epicureans are represented by Velleius, and the Stoics by Lucilius Balbus. The three participants discuss the existence of gods or God, their nature, whether they govern the universe, and their relationship with humans. Although written before the birth of Christ, Cicero’s book sounds contemporary because it raises questions that are still the subject of fierce debates today.
What is so clear and obvious, when we look up at the sky and observe what is on it, is that there is a will of the most sublime mind that governs it?
…
If anyone were to doubt this, I truly do not understand why they would. I would hesitate to question the existence of the Sun, because what makes the latter clearer than the former?
We present an excerpt from a Stoic exposition from the second volume of a book, which represents a preserved ancient attempt to prove the existence of a God who governs the world with transparency and cares for mankind. Cicero himself concludes at the end of the book that Balbus’ exposition seems closer to what resembles the truth.
“If all the parts of the world are arranged in such a way that they could not be better in terms of usefulness or more beautiful in appearance, let us consider whether this is a coincidence or whether they are in this state because of deliberate planning and God’s providence. Therefore, if what nature has created is better than what art has created, and art cannot create anything without reason, nature should not be considered unreasonable. When you see a sculpture or a painting, you know that it is the work of art. When you see a ship moving from a distance, you don’t doubt that it moves because of reason and skill. Or when you observe a clock, whether it is solar or water-powered, you know that it has been designed and constructed for a specific purpose.” And he demonstrates the clock thanks to skill, not by chance, which aligns with the opinion that there is no thought and reason in the world, which encompasses these skills, their artists, and everything else. If someone were to bring that sphere to Scythia or Britain, recently made by our friend Posidonius, whose individual moving parts display the movement of the Sun, Moon, and five wandering stars for each individual day and night, as it is in the sky, who in that barbaric land would doubt that this sphere is a product of reason? And these people are unsure whether the world, from which everything is created and born, originated by chance, some necessity, or by God’s mind and reason…
Let’s imagine the darkness that was once, as the story goes, after the flames erupted from Mount Etna, darkening the surrounding area, so that for two days no man could see another man, and when the Sun shone on the third day, it seemed as if they had come back to life. If the same were to happen, that after eternal darkness we suddenly see light, what would it seem like to us? What does the sky look like? By daily observation and habit of the eyes, however, the spirit also becomes accustomed and is not surprised by the things it always sees, nor does it question their reasons, as if novelty of things should prompt us to explore their reasons more than their importance. Who can call a man someone who has perceived the correct movement of the sky, the harmonious arrangement of the stars, and such an arrangement and connection among everything, and denies that there is any reason in it, and says that everything that happens with such wisdom that we cannot comprehend it with our own wisdom arises by chance? When we see something moving a machine, for example, a ball, a clock, or countless other things, we do not doubt that these are the works of reason. And when we look at the way the sky moves and rotates at a marvelous speed, constantly creating seasonal changes for the health and preservation of everything, do we doubt that this happens not only by reason but also by excellent and divine reason?
Now we can leave the detailed discussion behind and gaze with our eyes at the beauty of things that we say are created by God’s providence. Let us first look at the whole Earth. It is situated in the center of the world, solid and round, and rounded on all sides by its own force, adorned with flowers, grass, trees, fruits, and the incredibly diverse abundance of all of that. Add to that the endless springs, transparent river waters, green covers of shores, deep cave cavities, sharp rocks, the heights of steep hills, and boundless meadows; add to it hidden veins of gold and silver and an infinite amount of marble. And how many and how different species of animals, tame and wild, how all birds fly and sing, how much food there is for livestock, how much lives in the forest! What to say about the human race, which is set as the guardian of the Earth and does not allow it to be disfigured by wild beasts and devastated by weeds, thanks to whose work fields, islands, and shores are adorned with magnificent buildings and cities. If we could observe this both with our spirit and with our eyes, by observing the whole Earth, no one would doubt about God’s reason.
And what beauty the sea has, what looks its womb, with its turquoise color and gentle waves, where a countless number of fish and marine creatures live, different sizes, shapes, and colors. The sea provides food, livelihood, and beauty, it tempts with its depths, hides secrets and treasures. Its salty aroma, fresh breeze, and vastness create a sense of peace, freedom, and unity with nature. The sea symbolizes power, mystery, and eternal change. Its sparkle and tranquility spark a desire for adventures, exploration, and discovery. And when the sun sets, painting the sky in warm hues of orange, pink, and purple, the sea becomes even more magical, where dreams blend with reality and the horizon disappears into infinity. , what a multitude and diversity of islands, what a beauty of the coast, how many different species of animals live in the depths, swim on the surface, cling to rocks with their shells! Only the sea approaches the land that it bathes in such a way that it seems that the two beings merge into one.
The adjacent air follows the sea, which changes according to day or night, and now it rises diffused and thin, now it condenses into clouds and, collecting moisture, fertilizes the earth with rain, now pouring here and there, it causes winds. It also creates the annual changes of cold and heat, it supports the flight of birds, and living beings are nourished and maintained by its breath.
What remains is the ultimate and most distant area of the sky from our dwellings, which encompasses and surrounds everything. It is also called the ether. It is the ultimate shore and boundary of the world, in which fiery forms wonderfully describe their regular paths. The Sun revolves around the Earth, which it surpasses in size. Its rising and setting create day and night, and as each day passes Dusk approaches, then recedes, thus crossing the path between two distant points twice, while alternately during one of these periods Earth is engulfed in a kind of sadness, and in the other it becomes joyful, as if rejoicing with the sky. The Moon, on the other hand, which, as mathematicians prove, is larger than half of the Earth¹, travels the same space as the Sun, sometimes approaching it, sometimes moving away from it. The brilliance it receives from the Sun is sent to Earth, and in doing so, its light undergoes various changes. Sometimes it stands in front of the Sun, obscuring its light and rays; sometimes, when it is opposite the Sun, it enters the Earth’s shadow and suddenly darkens because the Earth stands between it and the Sun. The stars we call wandering also travel through these spaces around the Earth, and in the same way, they rise and set; their movements sometimes accelerate, sometimes slow down, and often come to a halt. Nothing can be more wonderful or beautiful than this scene. Following are an enormous number of stationary stars, arranged in such a diverse manner that They are named according to the shapes they resemble. “At this point, he looked at me and said, “I will use Arat’s2 poems, which you, then very young, translated. Since they are in Latin, I love them so much that I know a good part of them by heart.
So, as we always see, without any changes or deviations, everything else on the fast-moving sky slides, is carried together with the sky both day and night,
and no one who wants to see the constancy of nature can ever tire of observing it.
So, the very end of the double axis is called the pole.
Around it, two Bears, which never set, travel.
The first one is called Cynosura by the Greeks,
the second one is called Helike.
Throughout the whole night, we see its bright stars…
Can anyone who is sane think that this arrangement of constellations and such decoration of the sky could have originated from bodies that move here and there by chance? Or that some other being, to which mind and reason are not given, could create what not only did not originate from anything, but is also so organized and beautiful?” “Not foolish, but lacking profound reason and incomprehensible?”…
1 The diameter of the Moon is slightly smaller than a quarter of the Earth’s, but in ancient times, there were experts who considered the Moon to be larger than the Earth.
2 Aratus (around 315 – around 250 BC) wrote a work about celestial phenomena in epic verses, which grammarians divided into two parts: Phenomena and Signs (prognostic signs). The work was very popular during Hellenism and later among the Romans, and it has survived to this day. It has been translated into Latin several times, and one of the proud translators was Cicero, who translated it at the age of about sixteen.