When in 1853, under pressure from Western powers, Japan’s centuries-long isolation from the outside world was broken, it sparked a deep and comprehensive interest in Japanese history and culture from the West. Soon, in order to modernize Japan, doors were opened to many scientists, including anthropologists, archaeologists, and missionaries, which resulted in numerous studies on the origins of the Japanese and other ethnic groups. This opening of Japan coincided with a wave of studies on different peoples and tribes that emerged in the second half of the 19th century, inspired by Darwinistic evolutionism in anthropology.
The Ainu people attracted the greatest interest from Western researchers because they were a geographically, culturally, linguistically, and racially isolated group. Modern archaeology and anthropology are still shedding light on their origins, but the most convincing assumption is that they are descendants of prehistoric hunter-gatherers who came to the Japanese islands from Asia at the end of the last ice age, several 12,000 years ago, when the Japanese islands were still connected to the Asian mainland by land bridges. With the end of the ice age, temperatures increased, sea levels rose, and islands were formed. Ancient Chinese and Japanese chronicles mention that the “first inhabitants of Japan” encountered barbarians (Emishi) on the islands and pushed them to the northern islands through warfare.
In the first archival photographs from the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Ainu people resembled Caucasians more than members of the yellow race, but today, these distinctive features are disappearing due to intermixing with Japanese and other neighboring peoples, along with their ancient culture.
The Enigmatic Race
What particularly intrigued Western researchers was the fact that the Ainu possessed almost European facial features. Because they differed in appearance and language from the people they lived among, many European and Japanese researchers considered the Ainu to be a distinct, distant, and isolated branch of the white race to which Europeans also belong. The Ainu were a mixed race and a large part of the population of Western Asia. They mainly based their claims on the Caucasian characteristics of the Ainu: elongated faces, thick, unruly, curly hair that they no longer cut after a certain age, prominent noses, deep-set and open eyes, strong, muscular, and hairy bodies. All of this set them apart from members of the yellow race. They also had a naturally dignified posture, which contrasted with the generally modest posture of the Japanese.
Polish anthropologist Bronislaw Pilsudski (1866-1918), who found himself among the Ainu by chance for the first time in 1896 and spent eighteen years with them intermittently, even having a son with an Ainu woman, wrote in the introduction to his study published in 1912: The outward appearance of the Ainu strongly resembles types that can be found in Europe: they sometimes call to mind Jews, sometimes Russian peasants, sometimes Gypsies.
However, Russian anthropologists from the late 19th to early 20th century, who collected a wealth of data Information about their religion, material culture, and art made them inclined to the belief that they were a branch of prehistoric peoples from Southeast Asia and rejected the theory of their Caucasian origin, considering it uncritically accepted.
Recent DNA analyses show that despite evidence of Caucasian or Central Asian characteristics among the Ainu, there is still no definitive answer to the question of their origin. Some researchers see their connection to the Tungus, Altai, and Uralic peoples of Siberia, while others associate them with North American Indians, Alaska Eskimos, and even Southeast Asian peoples, but they are in no way linked to Korean and Japanese biological roots.
Various studies and examinations of collections of skulls, bones, teeth, as well as linguistic studies, only deepen the mystery of their origin, suggesting ancient Paleolithic roots and a close if not direct connection to the Jomon culture.
Paleolithic Traces
The Jomon culture is rich in evidence. The Jomon period is the oldest known archaic period of Japan, which according to official chronology, lasted in different stages from 13000 BC to 300 AD. The Jomon culture was named after the characteristic corded pattern on pottery and gradually gave way to the Yayoi culture.
Some researchers believe that the bearers of the Jomon culture are the distant ancestors of modern Japanese people, thereby depriving the Ainu of any role in the cultural development of the country. However, archaeological data clearly contradict this theory because there is a sharp boundary between the Jomon culture and the Yayoi culture, whose development continues uninterrupted to the historical times of the Japanese state. It seems that the Jomon culture was created by the ancestors of the Ainu, who withdrew in the face of the invasion of the Japanese.
Although the Ainu themselves do not engage in pottery, carvings and patterns on their traditional clothing and ritual objects strangely resemble decorations on some types of ancient Jomon ceramics. Their language, religion, and culture are completely different from Japanese, and also They point to a Paleolithic origin.
Inao
Inao is a sacred rod with ornamental shavings that symbolizes the bird that accompanies prayers addressed to the world of gods. It is an essential part of all Ainu ceremonies. It is usually about half a meter long, and the most common materials used to make it are willow and a type of dogwood because the wood is light and easy to work with. The wood can be shaved in different ways, from bottom to top, from top to bottom, and curled shavings are left at the ends. The shavings are made in different shapes depending on which deity they are praying to.
Inao are placed in the eastern, sacred part of the house. They are also placed outside the house, on the eastern side, and are considered messengers between Ainu and kamui (gods and spirits). They believe that certain spirits reside in them, which, after receiving prayers, transform into birds. Therefore, it is very important to keep them in good condition; when an inao loses its freshness, its spiritual power is terminated.
The following prayer speaks about the role of inao. which is pronounced during the ceremony of the return of the eagle spirit: Oh precious deity, oh divine bird, please hear my words. You do not belong to this world, because your home is with the Creator and his golden eagles. That is why I offer you this inao, cakes, and other precious items. Mount the inao and ascend to your homeland in the shining heavens. When you arrive there, gather the deities of your kind and thank them on our behalf for their governance of the world. Please come again and rule over us. Oh my beloved, go in peace.
Indeed, until the restoration of the Meiji dynasty (1868), when the systematic assimilation of the Ainu into the Japanese people began and when many of their ancient customs were prohibited as obstacles to Japan’s modernization, the Ainu lived almost exclusively as hunter-fisher-gatherers, as semi-nomads who had their winter and summer dwelling places in order to secure enough food, and they only domesticated dogs to serve them in hunting and sled pulling. The women were entrusted with For cooking, collecting edible or medicinal plants, and making clothing with complex patterns that had a protective magical role. The clothing was made from attusha, the inner bark of the birch tree, which was processed in a special way. Men hunted, fished, and carved ritual objects. Their daily life was infused with magic and included many shamanistic rituals similar to those of the Siberian and North American peoples. Men played the leading role in these rituals, but with the help of women since all rituals took place around the hearth, and their wives were called “daughters of the hearth.”
Prayer sticks – ikupasuy
Prayer sticks, ikupasuy, carry prayers to the gods and, like inaoi, are used as mediators between the Ainu and the spiritual world.
They are made of wood with dimensions of 33 cm x 4 cm. They are flat, with the upper side beautifully carved with patterns. The carvings usually identify the person praying so that the spirits or gods they worship can recognize them. A lot of dedication was put into their making. Attention and time.
Prayer sticks are also used in a ceremony resembling a libation sacrifice during which sacrificial sake or barley beer is consumed. The stick is taken with the right hand and immersed in the sacrificial drink, then sprinkled on the ground as an offering to the spirits, especially the household spirits. After that, the drink is consumed, but with the prayer stick raising the mustache so as not to fall into the drink, which is considered inappropriate. That’s why these prayer sticks were called “mustache-lifting sticks” among the non-Ainu people. Chisato Dubreuil says: Ikupasuy or prayer sticks are the most important ritual objects for the Ainu people, who send prayers to the gods. XIX and XX century anthropologists could not understand the function of ikupasuya, so they called them “mustache holders”.
The Ainu people did not have a written language, but for generations they orally transmitted experiences, legends, stories, and advice for everyday life. Their extremely rich and diverse tradition was only recorded in the 19th and 20th centuries, when Ainu research began. The oldest and The most interesting part of this tradition are the epic stories, yukare, in which their tradition is carefully woven. Yukare are usually transmitted by men who show an interest in the tradition from a young age and have a good memory. They would visit houses in the village in the evening and tell stories that served as a means of learning and teaching among the Ainu people.
Their language, on the other hand, is considered an isolated language and cannot be connected to any other language in the world, except for borrowing words between the Japanese and Ainu due to their coexistence. French missionary Mermet de Cachon wrote: Their language is simple… it contains frequent comparisons to the sea, volcanoes, bears, deer, etc. They greet each other with the words: “May the spirit and strength of the bear be with you!”
The Ainu people believe that there is a deity in every natural phenomenon or object, including the Sun, Moon, thunder, wind, water, and fire, as well as in animals, plants, and everything related to everyday human life. Everything in the world has a divine presence. that surrounds them, living and non-living, represents a deity or spirit that descended to Earth in the form of an animal, plant, or object, thus everything has its own supernatural essence. Everything is alive and imbued with spirit.
Among the deities, there is a hierarchy with the supreme god – the Old Man of the Mountain – at the top, to whom one must not directly address. In the lower ranks are the main deities such as the Hearth Patroness, and on a lower level of the hierarchy are the Aioina, who created and taught the Ainus skills and knowledge, and kamuijis, nature gods, animals, plants, objects.
The Ainus are connected to the deities who serve as their protectors and helpers. They believe that the gods descend to their land, Ainu moshir, in the form of animals and plants to provide them with food and other useful things, such as fur, material for clothing, etc. In this sense, the bear, like in other Paleolithic peoples, was the most important deity in their religion.
Chise
The traditional Ainu house, chise, was the center of Ainu life. Its structure follows certain rules related to their spirituality.
It is made of wooden construction with walls made of reeds, a grassy floor, and a thatched roof. It consists of an entrance area and a long room with a simple rectangular hearth in the center, with an opening in the roof above it. Daily life as well as religious and shamanistic ceremonies revolved around this hearth, where the goddess of fire, Fuchi, resided. Fuchi is one of the most important goddesses in Ainu mythology. She is the guardian of the door between the world of humans and the world of kamuy (deities). Her position is so important that she must never leave the house, and therefore the fire in the hearth must never be extinguished. According to myth, she descended from the sky accompanied by kamuy of thunder and lightning. She taught the Ainu how to make sacred belts, kut (a ritual object), and because of this gift, she was given the name “Teacher of the People,” Iresu Kamui. Before going hunting, especially bear hunting, the Ainu would pray to the goddess of the hearth and the guardian of the house to convey their desires for a safe hunt and a good catch. The mountains are beautiful.
The hearth in the center of the chise was not only the center of every Ainu household, but it was also considered a channel through which humans and kamuiji could communicate, and also the dwelling place of the dead; the Ainu word for ancestor translates as “those who reside in the hearth”. The husband and wife traditionally sat on the left side of the hearth (shiso), and the children sat opposite them, on the right side (harkiso).
The eastern part of the house was a sacred area that was not to be defiled by daily activities. Ritual objects and inaoi were kept on a special shelf there. There was also a window on the eastern side that faced the mountain and was reserved for the entry of kamui and for bringing in and taking out ritual objects, but it was not to be looked through. On the outside of that window was an altar for rituals – nusa, where inaoi used in religious ceremonies were placed. Family treasures were stored in lacquered containers on the shelf in the northeast corner of the house.
Every aspect of Ainu life revolved around the hearth. are zasnivao se na pre-established beliefs. Gods and humans have a relationship of mutual assistance. Gods lead, protect, and help humans, and in return, humans are grateful to them and worship them through ceremonies, dances, and sacrificial offerings. Their rituals were closely connected to nature and natural resources that provided them with life. Gods sacrifice their bodies to provide food for humans, and therefore Ainu everyday life was filled with ceremonies and dances dedicated to the gods to ensure their favor.
However, there are also evil gods and other evil spirits that cause diseases and other misfortunes. These would be driven away through shamanistic rituals.
Ainu believe that death is the separation of the soul and the body. The body remains in this world, while the soul goes to another world where it meets the ancestors. The other world is underground and is a mirror image of this one, with the same structure but with reversed space and time. Souls remain in that world until they are ready to return to this world, when they are reborn. All living beings They repeat this eternal transition between these two worlds. The Ainu have no heaven and hell, but the ancestors can refuse access to the afterlife to the souls of people who have treated them badly in life, and then shamans are called upon to convince the ancestors to accept their souls. The Ainu also believe that a strong attachment to some form of this world or deep dissatisfaction with it in life can cause the deceased to strongly bond with it. In that case, a shaman would be called upon to convince the soul to cross over to the other world.
The Bear Cult
Among the numerous ceremonies, the most important ones were those in which the spirits of the gods – who descended into the human world as animals, plants, and objects for daily use in order to provide them with food and other necessities – were returned to the world of the gods, Kamui moshir. Bear meat was their main food, and they made clothing from its skin, so the key ceremony was iyomante, the ceremony of returning the spirit of the bear to where it came from. It was usually performed between January and February. when the snow would fall.
A cub of a bear would be caught alive and brought to the village where it would be raised with care and love until its second or third year of life. As the bear cub grew, it became increasingly difficult to take care of it and provide for its nourishment, which would eventually be a sign that the time had come for iyomante. Then they would call upon neighbors, friends, acquaintances and ceremoniously return its spirit to the world of the gods, accompanied by a grand ceremony of singing and dancing. The spirit of the bear would be returned to the world of the gods through prayers, offerings, and invitations to return soon.
We find such a complex bear cult among many Paleolithic peoples of Eastern and Northeast Asia. These ancient hunter-gatherers revered the bear as the master of animals and the forest.
The Ainu see a supernatural being in the bear. The bear is the intermediary through which they address the supreme god. According to their beliefs, its soul is freed to go as a messenger to the supreme god and she sought protection for the Ainu in exchange for their loyalty.
Chisato Dubreuil, an anthropologist from the Smithsonian Museum in Washington, and a native Ainu, says: We believe that the bear is the most important god in our religion. Many people misinterpret this ceremony, thinking that we sacrifice bears, but the bear is a god. We believe that the bear comes into this world to provide us with meat and fur, and we return the spirit of the bear to the other world. That is the essence of iyomante.
Museum people
Once, the Ainu inhabited most of the Japanese islands from Okinawa to Sakhalin, the Kuril Islands, and the Kamchatka Peninsula, and today they live as an ethnic minority in several settlements on the northern Japanese island of Hokkaido. Although about 20,000 declare themselves Ainu, they resemble more Japanese than the Ainu encountered by the first Western explorers. Contemporary Ainu have fully assimilated into Japanese society, mostly through mixed marriages, and it is estimated that only around a thousand of them speak the native language.
The reason for this is centuries of Discrimination and Japanization, as well as prejudices towards them, still exist in Japanese society, similar to those towards the Roma in Europe. They have long lived solely from fishing, selling skins, and seaweed, but the Japanese government, in order to improve their position and make amends for the long-standing discrimination, started supporting their traditional crafts and the production of art objects within the Ainu ethnic village and museum to preserve their tradition. This way, the Ainu became part of Japan’s tourist attraction, with the bear as their symbol! In their desire to preserve their own tradition, which is relentlessly disappearing, the Ainu have unintentionally commercialized it. It has become something they live off of, rather than a way of life.
Interestingly, it was only half a year ago that the Japanese Parliament adopted a resolution recognizing the Ainu as “the indigenous people of Japan with a distinct language, religion, and culture,” just before the annual meeting of the heads of state and government of the G8 group, which was held in Hokkaido in 2008. Unfortunately, the recognition comes at a time when their tradition has moved from life to museums.