Roman culture, the last great culture of the ancient world, was created on the Hellenistic heritage. However, Greek and Roman cultures were based on different value systems.
Greek artists were deeply religious and their greatest architectural achievement was the temple. In their artistic expression, they sought the universal, the ideal form, and they sought harmony in simplicity and deliberate proportioning. The starting point of their art was in thought.
Arch of Septimius Severus, Rome
On the other hand, the Romans, being great practitioners, dealt with concrete, individual things. The Roman artist sought inspiration in experience, in the world around them, portraying it as it is. They understood architecture as a form that enclosed a usable space for a specific purpose. Therefore, they built magnificent aqueducts, bridges, roads, and theaters. For them, a temple was not only a place where people addressed God, but also an expression of the power of the ruler who built it.
At its peak, The Roman Empire extended from Persia in the east to Scotland in the west, encompassing the entire area we now call the Western world. Seneca said that the Romans fought with a sword in one hand and a shovel in the other. Providing the conquered lands with all the benefits of their civilization, they built roads, bridges, and entire cities throughout the empire, which were small replicas of Rome, with all the functions of city life.
Roman culture was distinctly urban, with cities that were carefully planned to meet the needs of their inhabitants. On important occasions, rulers organized grand public celebrations, and one such event was the reception of the ruler returning from victorious conquests. The highlight of the festivities was the procession passing through the triumphal arch – a symbol of victory.
The Arch of Septimius Severus, Rome
The triumphal arches are a reflection of the practical Roman spirit. Arch, as a construction, along with vault and dome, is an invention of Roman builders that allowed them to create such monumental structures. Roman artists were able to transform utilitarian, engineering structures such as the Colosseum or the Pantheon into monuments. This was not only the case with arches: Trajan’s column, standing alone in Trajan’s Forum, towering at 40 meters high and adorned with a spiral relief depicting scenes from the battle against the Dacians, carries the same idea within it.
In terms of design, the triumphal arch is a transitional form between sculpture and architecture. It serves as a monumental entrance that does not lead into an enclosed space; it is both an element of urban planning and a sculptural work.
Although the arch itself is a flat form, in the case of triumphal arches, it is embedded in a massive wall, almost turning into a vault. The arch is supported on the sides by short walls that hold sculpturally processed plates. Above the architrave, there is an attic, a low wall that serves for structural reinforcement. It bears an inscription, either carved or made of bronze letters, and also supports freestanding statues. Sculptures, usually made of gilded bronze.
The first triumphal arches were single, later triple arches began to appear, one larger central arch and two smaller ones on the sides. This shape required a larger and higher wreath for stability.
Trajan’s Arch in Ancona
The first commemorative arches date back to the 2nd century BC; Stertinius dedicated them to his victorious campaign in Spain, but it was only under Augustus and his immediate successors that arches became a common feature of artistic expression. Emperors like Hadrian, Trajan, or Septimius Severus built arches throughout the Empire; more than fifty are recorded in Rome itself. They were mostly located at important city points, such as at the entrance to the forum. Sometimes, like in Timgad in Algeria, open arches were located in the city walls, serving as city gates during times of peace. Elsewhere, for example in Canosa, Asti, and Aquino, they straddled the access road outside the city walls. Perhaps the most spectacular was the triumphal arch in Ancona, which rose at the end of the breakwater, dominating the view both from the land and the sea.
The basic architectural form of the first triumphal arches remained almost unchanged over time. What changed was the sculpture, or the artistic representation accompanying the development of freestanding sculpture. Constantine’s Arch in Rome from the 4th century was adorned with sculptures originating from older monuments from the time of Trajan and Hadrian. Part of the relief is from Constantine’s time, depicting his speech to the Senate and the people upon entering Rome. The composition is strictly symmetrical, the emperor is in the center, facing the viewer, and all other characters are shown in profile. Two statues in the corners of the podium, facing frontally like the emperor, depict emperors Marcus Aurelius and Hadrian. Here we can already see a certain rigidity and schematization of form, characteristic of the early Christian period and the decline of classical art.
for no reason became a symbol of the Roman Empire. They are the embodiment of a great culture on whose laws, religion, and technological achievements our present-day civilization is based. After the general passed through it, symbolically marking his entrance into new lands, the triumphal arch remained as a permanent reminder of victory. The reliefs with which it was adorned depicted scenes from battle, the emperor’s procession, or some other actual event, and therefore the triumphal arch had the value of a historical document and witness of a certain period.