Although its origins are tied to temporal, spatial, and ethnic constraints, the art of ancient Greece is still recognized today, after two and a half millennia, as a unique, timeless, universal value. Greek artists managed to create works that embody their philosophical, ethical, and aesthetic ideas, which have a symbolic value much deeper than it seems at first glance, conveying the reality of life into myth and verse, into symbols and allegories that carry a general, universal message.
Of all the visual arts, architecture is the most abstract and its symbolism is the most difficult to decipher. This does not refer to the specific, clearly defined purpose of a building, but to its form. The harmony of lines and shapes, fullness and emptiness, light and shadow can depict the world around us in a unique way. Greek architecture has its origins in thought, and in order to understand it, we must observe it in the context of the entire ancient worldview, which includes miješanja umjetnosti, filozofije, znanosti i religije.
Vitruvije, rimski povjesničar umjetnosti i arhitekt, piše:
Obrazovanje arhitekta mora obuhvaćati razne discipline i široko znanje, mora biti nadaren i zainteresiran za znanost. Naime, ni nadarenost bez znanja, ni znanje bez nadarenosti ne mogu stvoriti istinskog umjetnika. Stoga arhitekt mora biti pismen, vješt u crtanju, dobro upućen u geometriju, mora poznavati povijest, filozofiju i glazbu, ne smije biti neuk kada je u pitanju medicina, mora se znati nositi s pravnim problemima i mora imati znanje o astrologiji i nebeskim zakonima… Kada je ta disciplina obogaćena tolikim različitim i složenim znanjima, smatram da se samo onima koji su još kao djeca ovladali različitim disciplinama i stjecali znanja iz raznih znanosti i vještina može priznati titula arhitekta, dok se penjali na vrhunac znanja – arhitekturu (Vitruvije, De architectura libri I).
Dakle, grčka arhitektura je na neki način sinteza svih ovih znanja.
Ideja of bl ending art, philosophy, science, and religion.
Vitruvius, a Roman historian of art and architect, writes:
The education of an architect must consist of multiple disciplines and diverse knowledge; they must be talented and inclined towards science. Indeed, talent without knowledge, and knowledge without talent cannot create a complete artist. Therefore, an architect must be literate, skilled in drawing, have a good understanding of geometry, possess a deep knowledge of history, philosophy, and music, be proficient in medicine, adept at handling legal problems, and have knowledge of astrology and celestial laws… When this field is rich and filled with such diverse and multifaceted knowledge, I believe that only those who have climbed the ladder of various disciplines since childhood, acquiring knowledge from multiple fields and skills, should be recognized as architects, having reached the pinnacle of architecture (Vitruvius, De architectura libri I).
Thus, Greek architecture is, in a way, a synthesis of all these knowledge areas.
Idea of blending art, philosophy, science, and religion.
Vitruvius, a Roman art historian and architect, writes:
The education of an architect must consist of multiple disciplines and various knowledge. They must be talented and inclined towards science. Indeed, neither talent without knowledge, nor knowledge without talent can create a complete artist. Thus, an architect must be educated, skilled in drawing, have a good understanding of geometry, possess a thorough knowledge of history, philosophy, and music, be knowledgeable in medicine, adept in legal matters, and have knowledge of astrology and celestial laws… When this field is rich and abundant with so many different and diverse forms of knowledge, I believe that only those who have climbed the ladder of various disciplines since childhood and have nourished themselves with knowledge from multiple fields and skills can rightfully be recognized as architects, having reached the highest temple – architecture (Vitruvius, De architectura libri I).
Therefore, Greek architecture is, in a way, a synthesis of all these knowledge areas.
The period of Greek art that is commonly referred to as classical lasted from 450 to 330 BC. What sets this era apart from the previous archaic and later Hellenistic periods is the balance of artistic representation with an abstract canon of beauty. The focus of artistic interest is not on the individual, specific elements, but rather on seeking common, universal characteristics in nature and humanity. In contrast to the Hellenistic period, where artists often delved into realism, this period of classical idealism is concerned with the ideal proportions of the human body and the ideal form of the temple.
Jacques Ignace Hittorff, reconstruction of the original appearance of the Doric temple in Selinunte.
The relationship between man and nature is based on order and harmony, with the temple serving as a connection and proportional intermediary between them. The temple is a structure built for religious purposes, and the word “re-ligare” means to reconnect, in this case, achieving unity between man and the surrounding world. Since the external appearance of the temple played a crucial role in reflecting these ideals, great attention was dedicated to its design, proportions, and overall aesthetic. Form is always the foundation of consciousness, a temple must not be built according to any principles, but its form must comply with archetypal laws, which exist simultaneously in nature and in humans. Therefore, a temple is both a representation of a human and a representation of nature, or the world.
Theories of beauty
Many Greek philosophers tried to define the laws which they believed existed within humans and nature, and builders transformed their ideas into concrete temple forms.
One of the columns of Artemis’ temple in Sardis.
Plato later adopted Pythagoras’ idea of the mathematical structure of the universe. However, he only considers the world of appearances as an imperfect shadow of the eternal, archetypal images that reside in the realm of ideas. Ideas that express what is common, universal, identical, and lasting in individual things cannot be perceived by the senses, only by the mind. Plato includes the idea of beauty, along with the ideas of goodness and truth, among the three highest ideas. Therefore, for true artistry. The existence of a rational component is necessary to truly reflect the idea of beauty. The foundation for approaching the archetype in art is measure (metron) and proportion (symmetron). Absolute beauty can only be found in regular geometric shapes, pure colors, pure sounds. Art that reduces itself to mere imitation and copying of the visible world is worthless; it is merely a shadow of a shadow or one-third of the truth, according to Plato.
Many Greek philosophers have discussed issues of art, aesthetics, and the concept of the beautiful, and these two examples are just a part of what has been said or written about it. They point to the depth of inspiration of Greek artists and the breadth of imagination they tried to express in their works.
Historical development
Greek culture grew out of the Minoan-Mycenaean heritage. Along with many other values of the Minoan-Mycenaean culture, the Greeks also adopted the original form of the temple, which, throughout its development and in all its variations, retained the basic form of the megaron. The megaron was actually the original The concept of a simple residential house, which has been widespread in the areas of Asia Minor and the Balkan Peninsula since prehistoric times, was adopted by the Minoan-Mycenaean culture. Among the Mycenaeans, the megaron acquired a sacred function with an altar – hearth in the main room surrounded by four columns. The first Greek temples, directly derived from the megaron form, consisted of two parts. These were the pronaos (vestibule) with front columns and side walls (antae), and the actual dwelling of the deity – the naos. In the more developed form of the temple, there was an opisthodomos at the back, which served as the treasury of the temple.
The Greek temple was conceived as a spatial form that is observed from the outside, with more sculptural than architectural features. The interior space enclosed by the temple walls is not as monumental as the space of a Gothic cathedral, but rather small and compact. It is not a gathering place for believers, but rather the dwelling of the deity where only the statue of the god to whom the temple was dedicated was located.
The basic characteristics and features of Greek temples can be divided into two main groups: one group consists of the type, and the other of the architectural style.
The type of temple depends on its external shape and appearance, as well as the number and arrangement of columns. Over time, seven types of temples have developed from the basic form of megaron: templum in antis, double templum in antis, prostylos, amphiprostyle, peripteros, dipteros, and pseudodipteros.
The architectural style refers to the appearance and type of individual parts, especially the column and its capital, beam (architrave) and arrangement of decorations. All Greek temples were built in one of three basic styles – Doric, Ionic, or Corinthian, or in combinations of these three styles.
Orders
The styles in Greek architecture are also called orders. This implies that each order was a balanced, well-thought-out whole, whose parts were harmonized and proportioned. Vitruvius writes about six rules according to which Greek buildings were erected, and one of them is the so-called symmetry, which is Understanding the harmony between the parts of a building is crucial. Specifically, this means that the dimensions of each individual part of the temple were determined proportionally to the module, or the diameter of the column at its base. For example, the height of a column in each row was determined by multiplying the diameter of the column at the base by a specific number that depended on the row to which the column belonged. In fact, the size of the temple as a whole was determined by the diameter of the columns.
The temple is a symbolic representation of a human being, and we find a connection to the human body in the proportions of the temple, which correspond to the proportions of the human body. Vitruvius writes:
“No temple can have reasonable design without symmetry and proportion, its parts must stand in a certain relationship to each other, like the limbs of a well-formed person.”
The Doric style is the oldest in Greek architecture. According to tradition, this style was named after Dorus, the son of Helen and the nymph Pitia, who ruled over the Peloponnese and Achaea. Dorus built a temple in Argos dedicated to He The Doric column rises directly from the stylobate, the upper surface of the three-part base of the temple. The column tapers slightly upwards and ends in a simple capital consisting of an echinus, a round cushion-like shape, and an abacus or plinth, a square plate. The weight of the beam (architrave) and the prominent cornice (geison) is transferred to the columns through the abacus. The body of the column is fluted with shallow grooves (flutes), usually numbering between 16 and 20. The height of the Doric column is 6 (later 7) modules or the diameter of the column at its base, just as a man’s foot length is one-sixth of his height. Thus, the Doric order reflects the masculine principle and symbolizes the male body.
The Ionic style is associated with the feminine principle, and its proportions reflect the proportions of the female body. Unlike the Doric style, which is sturdier, geometrically consistent, and more massive, the Ionic style is softer, more elegant, and deviates more from the basic pattern. The height of the column corresponds to eight times, later nine times its diameter at the base. The column has a tripled diameter, making it slimmer than the Doric one. The column rests on a base made up of several rings, and the capital is adorned with volutes – spiral shapes representing curls of female hair.
Legend has it that it originated in Attica where the inhabitants of the Ionian coast, after raising the Doric temple to Apollo, built the Artemis temple in the Ionic style, transferring the proportions of the female body to the column.
The Corinthian style is the most lavish of these three styles, but it is also the least adapted to the simple taste of the Greek spirit, so its use in temples and public buildings never reached the Doric or Ionic order.
According to legend, this style is attributed to the architect Callimachus. He saw a basket covered in acanthus leaves on a grave in Corinth cemetery, brought by a nurse as a tribute to a young girl. She placed the girl’s toys in the basket, covered it with a plate, and accidentally put it right on the root of the acanthus. When the acanthus grew in spring, its lush leaves enveloped the basket. Due to the plate The branches curled into volutes, giving everything the appearance of a closed composition. Enchanted by this shape, Kalimah stylized it into a Corinthian capital and established the proportions of that order.
The Corinthian column reflects the proportions of a maiden’s body. Vitruvius writes that it imitates the gracefulness of maidens because they achieve even more delicate forms with their jewelry and clothing. The base and shaft of the column are simple and very similar to the Ionic, but the capital is very decorative and consists of two rows of acanthus leaves that emerge from the shaft, branching out and spiraling. Later, the Romans, by adopting almost all elements of Greek architecture, gave prominence to the Corinthian order, which perfectly suited the monumental Roman structures with its ornateness.
Adaptation to Humans
Observing the world around them, the Greek thinkers discovered that the laws of harmony and beauty are actually of a mathematical nature. The proportion of the golden ratio, which they found in nature and in the measurements of the human body, became the basis for The temple’s ionization was considered to be the mathematical principle that could connect the concrete, individual form with its ideal source. That’s why the layouts and facades of most classical buildings were defined by the golden rectangle. The golden ratio was present not only in the main measurements of the structure but also in the relationships between all its parts, thus establishing a connection with humans and nature in both the whole and the smallest details.
The golden rectangle is not just a reflection of a higher principle; it is beautiful and pleasing to the eye, possibly like the memory that exists in each of us of the perfect world of archetypes. One study showed that among several offered rectangles with different aspect ratios, participants chose the golden rectangle as the most beautiful.
However, the human eye is not perfect; it often does not perceive things as they truly are. It is known that the human eye perceives long horizontals as concave, repetitive verticals as a row, they appear to diverge upwards, and tall structures appear to lean forward. Greek builders made corrections based on these optical illusions. On the Parthenon, the centers of the horizontals are curved by 6.5 cm on the shorter sides and 12.3 cm on the longer sides of the facade, and the columns are inclined 7 cm inward. The outer columns, which do not have temple walls as a background but the sky which optically narrows them, are thicker than the others.
These corrections were made to alleviate the discrepancy between the sensory experience that can deceive a person and rational knowledge. Greek artists knew how to create a perfect form according to their standards, but they also knew how to transform it in order to enable a person to truly experience it with their limited senses.
In fact, the Greek temple is the architectural and artistic embodiment of the Greek idea of themselves, their belief in the strength and freedom of humans, and the meaning and beauty of life as they saw it and gave it meaning. And that is exactly the secret, on which the universal value of Greek art is based, the motives from which it was born, and the works that it created.