Europe Map during the time of Charlemagne.
Over time, the Church became the true bearer of the culture and art of that era, with religious architecture being its fundamental expression. As this early form of medieval art was dominated by architecture inspired by Roman architecture, art historians gave it the name Romanesque in the early 18th century.
Imperial Throne, Aachen Palatine Chapel
Pre-Romanesque, the period that preceded Romanesque, covers a wide time span from the end of the 6th century to the beginning of the 10th century, or in other words, from the Carolingian Renaissance to the full flourishing of Romanesque. During this almost four centuries long period, there was a blending and merging of classical ancient cultural elements with the Christian worldview and the heritage of the barbarian, mainly Germanic, peoples who had conquered the territory of the former Western Roman Empire by the end of the 6th century. Therefore, pre-Romanesque is manifested in an extreme diversity of regional and local styles. Characteristics, so every monument of hers is an original creation, although always a product of the collective spirit of the time.
SITUATION IN EUROPE
The Great Migration of peoples began around 375 AD when there was a migration of Germanic tribes from the east to the west. Their invasion will mark the end of the already weakened and divided Roman Empire, upon whose ruins Germanic states will emerge.
After a series of wars between the fragmented Germanic tribes, the most notable branch of the Carolingian dynasty takes their lead – Charlemagne (768-814). During his forty-seven-year reign and conquests, he created a unique European state that stood alongside Byzantium. With Charlemagne, an awareness of belonging to the West or Europe emerges.
Charlemagne was crowned Holy Roman Emperor on Christmas Day, 800 AD in Rome. Faithful to the Christian Church and enchanted by the splendor and power of Rome, Charlemagne devoted his entire life to creating a unified empire based on the Roman model.
Thanks to the fusion of
The Benedictine Abbey in Cluny, founded in 909, had one of the richest and most important libraries in Europe at the time. When it was looted by the Huguenots in 1562, much was destroyed and scattered. Today, many of the preserved books and valuable manuscripts are located in the National Library in Paris, with a smaller portion also being housed in the British Museum in London.
The emergence of Romanesque, which encompasses the 11th and 12th centuries, was favored by many elements. With the end of barbaric invasions and the formation of a strong Frankish state, there was a slow economic and cultural uplift. Concurrently with the formation of national languages, a robust expression of Romanesque art emerged. It was not an elegant art of courtly, aristocratic origins, but rather of the broad, uneducated masses, as it was born under the direct influence of the common people. The architecture was compact, heavy, and enclosed with few openings. With its firm static construction, Romanesque architecture met the needs of a world seeking stability and security during that time.
Perhaps the best evidence of the Frankish Empire is seen in Carolingian architecture, characterized by monumentality and grandeur, reflecting the greatness and uniqueness of Charlemagne’s empire. g. It is unnecessary to emphasize that the inspiration can be found in Roman architecture: from the adoption of ancient columns to their production, casting bronze for gates, etc. Following the example of Rome, Karl decides to build a magnificent and grand city in Aachen. On twenty hectares, he erects his imperial residence, with the Palatine Chapel at its center. This chapel, in which Charlemagne is buried, and around which the magnificent Aachen Cathedral was later built, is the only thing that has survived from his great vision.
O. Iveković: The Coronation of King Tomislav
O. Iveković: The Arrival of the Croats to the Sea
SITUATION IN CROATIA
There is very little information about the arrival of the Croats to the territory of present-day Croatia. It is believed that they arrived in the late 6th and early 7th centuries. There are no sources from that time that testify to their migration.
The core of the first Croatian state, known as the Coastal or Dalmatian Croatia, was along the eastern Adriatic coast. Another direction of Croatian settlement led to Pannonia, known as Posavska or Pan-
During the first three centuries after their arrival, the social and political life of the Croats unfolded in the Dalmatian, Pannonian, and Neretvan principalities. The most famous prince of Pannonian Croatia, Ljudevit (approx. 810 – 823), is remembered for his conflict with the Franks. Porga is mentioned as the first prince of Dalmatian Croatia (second half of the 7th century). The only trace of Prince Višeslav (approx. 800) is a preserved baptistery from the cathedral church in Nin. During the reigns of Trpimir, Domagoj, and Branimir, from the 840s to the 880s, Croatia experienced intensive development. The key events of this period were rapid christianization and entry into the circle of European Christian civilization brought prosperity in political and economic terms. There was war against the Venetians, Byzantines, Bulgarians, Arabs, and Franks.
K. Kreković: King Zvonimir
Upon their arrival in the new homeland, the Croats came into contact with the Benedictines, who began establishing their monasteries in our territory. As bearers of literacy and culture, they enjoyed great prestige among Croatian princes and kings, and thanks to them, the spread of pre-Romanesque architecture in our regions was made possible.
The bases of the Solomon’s Seal are enclosed in a rectangle with a hexagon with a ratio of sides of 1:√3.
PRE-ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE IN CROATIA
According to the basic ground plans, the early Croatian churches resemble the sacred buildings being constructed in other parts of Europe at that time. They can be divided into two basic types: central, with a circular hexalobate or less commonly octalobate ground plan, and cross-shaped with equal branches, and longitudinal, elongated buildings. The tip can be single-ship, double-ship, or triple-ship. However, regardless of the variety of floor plan shapes, the geometric structure of these buildings is organized according to regular shapes and proportions. This is not accidental considering that more attention was given to symbolism in those times.
A rectangle with a ratio of sides 1:√3, which is geometrically derived from a hexagon or Solomon’s sign, is the basis of many medieval buildings, thus expressing the idea of the Trinity.
Old Croatian interlace ornaments are also complexed according to certain geometric rules. They actually represent a labyrinth, a common motif in medieval art found on the floors of many European cathedrals, symbolizing man’s long and arduous journey towards the source of his existence.
Stone furniture in pre-Romanesque churches is decorated with shallow reliefs composed according to geometric principles in a grid of squares.
The co-modulation of the whole and its elements is particularly visible from the overlap of the floor plan and the drawing. >The graphic analysis of floor plan forms has revealed that in these deviations from the regular, there is a certain order within the chaos, and that irregularities consistently appear in similar places and to the same extent.
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>Although this is a partial depiction of a small number of sacred objects and their compositions, it can be concluded that the emergence of pre-Romanesque architecture was not left to chance or intuition, let alone ignorance or lack of craftsmanship. These are all conscious intentions and desired results. The monuments of pre-Romanesque are integrated into a specific system. They are united by a common principle of construction that carries clear elements of hidden, layered, symbolic meaning.
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>Along the entire Adriatic coast, we come across small stone churches with modest dimensions and various floor plan shapes. These distinctive buildings from the early Middle Ages are part of the contemporary cultural reality, but they still differ in many aspects from the general pre-Romanesque type of buildings present. The origins of the medieval European architecture are rooted in the local artistic style or old Croatian architecture. Due to their unique forms, abundance, and wide geographical distribution, we can talk about a local artistic style or old Croatian architecture. However, this style is a result of various diverse influences. During the two centuries after the arrival of the Croats, which is referred to as the Dark Period due to the lack of written sources, the original Slavic culture intertwined with the ancient heritage found in the new environment.
From the interaction of these two traditions, with traces of Byzantine and Frankish influences as well as the influence of the Benedictine order, the old Croatian art developed. It emerged simultaneously with the formation of the Croatian duchy and the intensified Christianization of the population in the 9th century and lasted until the time of the last Croatian rulers in the 11th century.
AREA OF ISTRIA
As a result of the struggles for control over the Italian territory between the Franks and the Byzantines, the Franks occupy Istria. In this way, Istria becomes part of the Frankish feudal state. of Novigrad. I am in Aquileia. Both halls are supported by four pillars and covered with cross vaults that strengthen the belts between the pillars and half-pillars.
The cathedral in Novigrad was most likely built in the Carolingian era, at the end of the 8th and beginning of the 9th century, during the rule of Duke Ivan who had his capital in Novigrad. The morphological characteristics of the church, wall decorations, and liturgical equipment are the result of numerous reconstructions from the 15th to the 18th century. The presence of three semi-circular windows in the northern wall of the church, under the modern surface of the walls, indicates the existence of a medieval structure. The church crypt, located under the sanctuary, also possesses medieval characteristics. In the crypt, over a hundred fragments with interlaced decorations were found, which were used in later adaptations (such as blocking original windows and doors, new constructions, etc.). These decorations have characteristics of sculpture from the late 8th and early 9th centuries, and stylistically match the windows on the northern wall of the church. The crypt was built in order to… ne of the goals of the church was to preserve the tomb and relics of Saint Pelagius, the patron saint of Novigrad. The interior of the church was richly decorated, including with frescoes. The faded remains belong to the oldest medieval wall paintings in Istria. There are two cities, strongholds or castles mentioned in documents under the names Parentino and Montcastello. The people of Istria, in the spirit of the Ikavian dialect, simply called them – Dvigrad. Life in one of them had already died out in the early Middle Ages, so only the name of the other remained as a memory of the original duality. After the outbreak of the plague in the 17th century, the second city only continued to exist through ruins. The most impressive ruins in Dvigrad are the ruins of the basilica of the Church of St. Sophia, a Romanesque three-nave church from the 11th century. In the altar area, inside its central apse, the remains of a pre-Romanesque single-nave church are preserved. It also had three inscribed apses in the eastern part, where remains of frescoes from the 9th century were found. The fragment of a column is probably the most famous finding related to the remains of the Church of St. Mary in Crkvine. It portrays an animal in motion, from whose gaping jaws with powerful teeth emerges a three-lane track that intertwines in simple looped eights along the length of the column and ends at the animal’s tail. At the opposite end of the missing column, there was probably a similar depiction. It is assumed that the motif was taken from illuminated manuscripts or objects of artistic craftsmanship from that time. It was most likely carved in the 9th century, shows Carolingian influence, and as a depiction, it is very rare.
KNIN REGION
The Early Medieval architectural complex in the area of Crkvine village in Kosovo Polje, about 7 km southeast of Knin, is certainly the most significant site of national archaeology in Croatia. For many years, it has been the subject of interest of numerous researchers, mainly historians and archaeologists. In addition to the complex itself, this area is full of other, equally important early Croatian churches, such as the ones on Lopuška glavica, Stupovi, Bukorovića’s garden, and others. This is a part of the most significant Croatian Early Medieval historical area which is recorded in historical sources as … in five churches in Kosovo. This micro-unit is mentioned in the appendix of the Croatian version of the Chronicle of the Priest of Dioclea from the second half of the 12th century in relation to the gathering of Croatian nobles at that location in 1089, when, according to legend, King Zvonimir perished in the noble conflicts that ensued by the Church of St. Cecilia at Stupovi. Out of all these Early Medieval remnants in the village of Biskupija near Knin, the Church of St. Mary was the most commonly researched subject.
The Church of St. Savior, Cetina near Vrlika
The Church of St. Savior is located in the village of Cetina, at the source of the eponymous river. It is the best-preserved church from the Carolingian period in the Croatian principality and an indispensable monument because it is one of the few monumental pre-Romanesque churches that did not undergo major alterations later on. In the 1980s, In the 9th century, the duke Gostiha had it built as his private church on his estate, and it is dedicated to Christ the Savior. The church is a single-nave and three-apse building and belongs to the group of Early Croatian churches with massive buttresses on the exterior walls. We find five churches of this group in the territory from Knin to the source of the Cetina River, while the sixth one is located in Biograd.
Since these churches are situated in places that were centers of political power of rulers of early medieval Croatia, some experts refer to them as royal pre-Romanesque. They also show a strong influence of Carolingian architecture, which is manifested in the presence of a bell tower attached to the body of the church (the bell tower of St. Savior is the oldest preserved Early Croatian bell tower in the area of the old Croatian state), as well as in the presence of a westwerk as a prominent Carolingian element. Around the church, about a thousand and one hundred graves have been excavated, making it the largest known Early Croatian cemetery to date.
Remains of ancient columns are incorporated into the foundations of the church. The Church of St. Donat.
The rotunda dedicated to the Holy Trinity began to be built in the second half of the 8th century, although the construction according to this project was never completed. The shape of the complex temple with a gallery was assumed only during the time of Bishop Donat in the 9th century.
ZADAR AREA
Located in the middle of the Croatian coast of the Adriatic, Zadar is mentioned for the first time as a Liburnian settlement in the 9th century BC. Its name has changed throughout history to Iadera (Roman sources), Diadora, Zara (Venice and Italy), and today Zadar. Byzantine Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus said back in 950 AD that in Greek, Diadora means “already was.”
In the 1st century BC, Zadar belonged to a Roman colony, and in the 7th century, it was the capital of the Byzantine theme of Dalmatia. At the beginning of the 9th century, it was briefly under the rule of the Carolingians, and after the year 812, it became the seat of Bishop Donat and the Byzantine leader Paulus. In the 10th and 11th centuries, the actual power over Zadar belonged to Croatian rulers.
The Church of St. Donat in Zadar is the largest. is a pre-Romanesque building in Croatia and one of the most monumental central churches of the Carolingian period in Europe. It has a circular layout with three horseshoe-shaped apses, and a ring-shaped nave with a gallery on the upper floor. It is as long as twenty-three meters and as tall as twenty-four (without the roof). The interior space is surrounded by massive pilasters, and only on the ground floor and upper floor towards the apses, there are triple lancet openings on two columns each. The columns are of ancient origin, and the church itself was built on the pavement of a Roman forum. It seems that it was precisely because of these elastic Roman foundations that the Church of St. Donat survived all earthquakes in the past, as well as bombings during World War II, when all the surrounding buildings were destroyed.
The trefoil of the apse is symbolically connected to the initial dedication of the Church to the Holy Trinity, and it was later dedicated to St. Donatus.
Church of St. Mary
The Church of St. Mary in Zadar (Stomorica) is the best-preserved example of hexagonal churches in the Zadar area. Its One specific feature is the pentagonal ground plan, i.e. the rectangular shape of the western space instead of a semicircular apse, so that, from the ground plan, the church resembles a key.
Church of the Holy Cross in Nin
At the end of the 8th and beginning of the 9th century, Nin was the seat of the first Croatian state community. The Croats embraced Christianity and thus entered the community of European cultural nations. The first Croatian bishop resided in Nin, and his jurisdiction extended throughout the then Croatia. In terms of religious, political, and cultural aspects of that time, the bishops of Nin, Theodosius, Adalbert, and Gregory, stood out. During the reign of Croatian kings, Nin was only occasionally the capital of the Croats.
The Church of the Holy Cross is the most famous architectural monument in Nin, also known as the “smallest cathedral in the world”. It is situated next to the parish church in Nin and with its position and beauty dominates the space in which it is located. It dates back to the 9th century and its shape resembles a Greek cross. The arms are covered with dome vaults and the exterior part is adorned with a row of blind niches, while the dome is of irregular ellipsoidal shape narrowing towards the top. During the rule of Croatian rulers, it served as the court chapel of the prince’s palace located nearby. In the immediate vicinity, about 170 medieval Old Croatian graves dating from the 8th to the 15th century were found and explored.
The baptistery of Prince Višeslav originates from Nina. According to some historians, Višeslav was the first Croatian prince who ruled around the year 800. The baptistery represents an important monument of church furniture and testifies to the time of the baptism of Croats. It is a hexagonal stone vessel in which the faithful were immersed during baptism.
Along the edge of the hexagonal baptistery, there is an inscription: “This spring receives the weak to enlighten them. Here they are cleansed of their sins, which they inherited from the first parent, to become Christians by confessing the Holy Trinity for salvation. This pious work was done by Priest Ivan during the time of Prince Višeslav in honor of St. John the Baptist, to intercede for.” him and his wards.” (according to Karaman, 1943.)
St. George’s Church, Rovanjska
In a small bay at the very end of the Velebit Channel, Rovanjska is situated. St. George’s Church is located by the sea on a rural cemetery. It is rectangular in shape, extremely small in size, with a semicircular apse on the east side. The pre-Romanesque church became the core of a later medieval building. It was extended on the west and north sides, and therefore also devastated. The church is oriented towards the position of the Sun during the equinox, so its axis coincides with the first Sunbeam of the morning. Other projections of Sunbeams show that the church is a very accurate light meter.
By its composition and arrangement of shapes, it symbolizes the regularity of time, as it manifests itself through the daily and annual path of the Sun.
The irregularities in its composition are a result of careful consideration, and were not done carelessly, but rather with a desire to subordinate spatial forms to the laws that govern celestial mechanics and the structure of time. Two The solstices and two equinoxes with various orientations in the crystalline calendar are positioned in the layout orientation. Skillfully arranged openings are present in the walls. These slits in the walls are actually pupils that observe and reflect the time of light into the interior of the church. The shapes of the Church of St. Cross are motivated by meaning. Only if we observe this small temple in the heart of the small town of Nin in this way, we are allowed to understand the meaning and all the reasons that make up the true beauty of this small church and transform the place where it was built into a consecrated place.
Citation: Mladen Pejaković Lika, she connects Croatian Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. Such transformation of a palace into a city is a unique case in the whole European area. Since it is, like Zadar, in a strategically favorable location – on the eastern Adriatic maritime route – both cities develop into significant centers of Dalmatia.
The Church of the Holy Trinity
The sun’s rays penetrate the left apse and fall on the right edge of the main entrance door. The southwest doors are bathed in the midday sun. Depending on the height of the sun during the equinox and solstice, its rays enter the building at various angles, penetrating deep into the space and leaving a trace of light in specific places, thus distributing these or other interior elements.
St. Peter’s Church in Priko near Omis
Br. The small churches with domes and articulated exterior walls are single-naved churches. The emergence of this type of church is influenced by two factors: the longitudinal space inherited from early Christian architecture, and the central concept expressed by the dome, which is associated with the presence of Byzantium. The extent of its influence has been most pronounced in the southern Adriatic region. The best-preserved example of this typical group is the Church of St. Peter in Priko near Omiš, which has retained its original appearance almost entirely to this day. Priko is located on the right bank of the Cetina River. The church is first mentioned in sources in 1074, and there was also a Benedictine monastery nearby.
Early Christian stone elements (capitals, stone grilles on windows…) are incorporated into the church.
The Church of St. George in Radun near Kaštel Stari
The Church of St. George in Radun near Kaštel Stari belongs to the single-naved type of churches with articulated exterior. It dates back to the 7th century and is one of the best-preserved churches of its kind. It is known that The church, with its rich exterior design and layout of interior elements, forms an instrument that measures various beams of sunlight. Today, the Brotherhood of Saint George of Radun actively takes care of the church and its surroundings, serving as a shining example of preservation efforts and dedication to heritage. Thanks to the actions of the Brotherhood in the environmental arrangements, remains of ancient Croatian tombs were discovered near the church.
Saint Michael’s Church in Biokovo near Igrane
The settlement of Igrane is located 17 km southeast of Makarska. It existed in Roman times, and here the Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja, an important source for interpreting the earliest Croatian history, has been preserved. Saint Michael’s Church dates back to the 11th century. It belongs to the type of single-nave churches with a dissected interior. The side walls are divided by two shallow niches each, and the deep square apse ends with a semicircular niche prominently featured on the eastern wall of the apse. The special feature of this church is the elevated part of the roof, creating the impression of a three-nave space from the outside.
DUBROVNIK AREA
In the church today, rehearsals of the church choir are also taking place. The detail of the altar fence, which is kept in the Church of St. Nicholas, comes from the Church of St. Peter the Great, probably the most significant ancient church in Dubrovnik. Today, it is part of the Art School of Luka Sorkočević – the current school hall used to be the Church of St. Peter the Great.
Several preserved churches from the pre-Romanesque and early Romanesque periods can be found in the old town core of Dubrovnik, where they are mostly integrated or hidden by numerous subsequent reconstructions. The largest number of churches is on the Elaphiti Islands, and many of them are still in use today.
Church of St. Nicholas on Prijeko
The part of the city that was fortified with walls only in the 13th century, after the filling of a shallow sea strait, becomes the last old city district – Prijeko. In terms of floor plan, the Church of St. Nicholas on Prijeko is an elongated rectangle with all side areas added. With this extension, the church became a double-nave, even though it was originally a single-nave building.
Namely, the After thorough archaeological research, it was concluded that the church is a true example of a single-nave domed type with a dissected exterior, a type of construction that was often used during the 10th and 11th centuries (when the church was likely built) in southern Dalmatia, and it is the most prominent regional style of early medieval architecture. Only the facade has been moved to the west and built in a Renaissance style in 1607.
The Church of Sigurata in Prijeko
The Church of Sigurata is a popular name for the Church of the Transfiguration of Christ. The name Sigurata comes from the Latin name for the Transfiguration of the Lord – Transfugatio Domini. This event took place on Mount Tabor when Jesus revealed his messianic role to his disciples. Today, the church is part of a female Franciscan sisters’ monastery. In front of the church, there used to be a square that was turned into a small enclosed space with the construction of a row of houses, which is now accessed through a narrow passage from Sigurata Street. It is now a three-nave building, the result of the last major renovation that took place. The restoration was carried out after the earthquake of 1667. It is evident from the floor plan that two side aisles were added to the original single-nave structure. In 1992, the church was heavily damaged by shelling, which led to new discoveries about its development during the restoration research. This provided a more comprehensive picture of the pre-Romanesque stage of construction as well as its later modifications and additions.
St. Demetrius Church, Gabrili, Konavle
For the continental part of Konavle, it was long believed that Christianity did not penetrate during the Middle Ages. However, this is convincingly contradicted by the Church of St. Demetrius on the local cemetery in Gabrili, in the area of Gornja Banda above Konavosko Polje. St. Demetrius was condemned to death in 304 A.D. for safeguarding holy books. He was executed in Sirmium (present-day Sremska Mitrovica), and his relics were transferred to Thessaloniki before the invasion of the Huns under Attila. From there, his veneration spread to both the East and the West, particularly among Orthodox Slavs. However, it is also present among Croats, especially on the southern Croatian coast and in Zadar. The church in Konavle is still functional today, thoroughly renovated and restored with the help of the Ministry of Culture.
For a long time, it was believed that the church originally had a dome, which later research disproved. There are many uncertainties surrounding this church, including the time of its construction. In front of it, a porch was built using the surrounding tombstones (which are still present in the area), indicating a possible later construction. The bell tower was removed above the entrance because it was determined that the church did not have it in its original form.
The Church of St. Michael in Ston
In the Middle Ages and beyond, Ston was an important economic, religious, and cultural center. It was the political center of the Zahumlje principality and likely the capital of the Kingdom of Duklja. It was also the seat of one of the oldest bishoprics in the entire Croatian ethnic territory.
The numerous churches in Ston, many of which are in ruins or have disappeared without a trace, testify to its turbulent past. In the middle of the swamp, a few buildings were located. As a top monument of architectural and artistic heritage, only the Church of St. Michael, located on top of the hill, has largely been preserved. This is the most famous and extensively described stone church, as well as one of the most significant pre-Romanesque churches. The Church of St. Michael is classified as a single-nave, three-aisled building with a dome, typical for southern Dalmatia. Although the dome is not preserved, its original existence is indicated by the characteristic composition of the structure and the preserved fresco depicting the king benefactor holding a model of a church with a dome in his hand. The church was most likely built in the 9th or 10th century and was later painted in the 11th century.
The early Romanesque frescoes in St. Michael are our most important painting monument from the 11th century, although they are damaged and only partially restored.
It is also assumed that St. Michael had a westwork because the rulers of Zahumlje were Frankish allies, and the church was initially a princely (Zahumlje) and later a royal (Duklja) church. If this statement is true, it would indicate the significant cultural and political influence of the Frankish empire in the region. It’s truly difficult to ascertain when it was removed and how a dome could have been on the church, which bears more resemblance to Byzantine rather than Carolingian architectural style.