When Mark Tullius Cicero once accompanied Gaius Caesar to the Capitol, he casually told his friends about a dream he had the previous night: how a noble-faced boy descended from the sky on a golden chain and stood at the gates of the Capitol temple, where Jupiter handed him a whip. Then Cicero suddenly spotted Augustus, who was still unknown to most people, and his uncle Caesar had invited him to the sacrificial ceremony, so he concluded that this was the man whose image appeared to him in his dream.
Indeed, many signs and dreams of influential people in Rome in 63 BC predicted the birth of Gaius Octavian, later known as Augustus. His father, Gaius Octavius, was a governor in Macedonia and died when his son was four years old, so his mother Atia took care of his further education. When he was twelve years old, his grandmother died and supposedly he delivered a eulogy, which caught the attention of his grandmother’s brother, Julius Caesar. He was raised by stoics, primarily reading Poseidonius, a member of the middle Stoicism, who, alongside Panetius, was most responsible for his upbringing. The young man studied stoic philosophy in Rome. He also dedicated a lot of attention to studying rhetoric.
When he turned sixteen, Julius Caesar included him in the college of priests (colegium pontifex), which was a great honor for a young man who had recently been declared mature according to Roman law, and thus gained the right to wear the adult toga (toga virilis). Just a year later, at the end of 46 BC, when Julius Caesar decided to go to Hispania to confront the sons of Gnaeus Pompeius, Octavian wanted to go with him but fell seriously ill. As soon as he recovered, in the first days of the following year, he set sail with a small military escort to join Caesar, but they had a shipwreck. After reaching the shore, he crossed enemy territory with the surviving soldiers and reached Caesar’s camp. Impressed by his bravery and courage, Julius acknowledged him and, after defeating Pompeius’ sons, welcomed him into his entourage on their return to Rome.
Shortly thereafter, Octavian went to Apollonia (in present-day Albania). ji) for training with the leading scholars of that time. He travels with Agrippa and Maecenas, who will remain his loyal friends and collaborators until his death.
In Apollonia, in 44 BC, he learns the news that the republicans, in fear of him declaring a monarchy, have killed Julius Caesar. Octavian was then not yet nineteen years old. Caesar adopted him in his will and made him his successor, as he had no legitimate sons. Octavian takes on his “father’s” name and becomes Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian.
Civil Wars and Triumvirate
The situation in which Octavian found himself at that time was not pleasant. Mark Antony, a close friend of Julius Caesar and an experienced general who was almost twenty years older than Octavian, was delaying in fulfilling Caesar’s will, trying to get rid of him. The conflict between them escalated into a civil war.
Cicero, at that time the most influential senator and orator, was not fond of Antony because of his arrogance and immorality, and provided full support to young Octavian. In support, he gained the Senate on his side. The Senate, as assistance, provides him with an army led by two young consuls, Pansy and Hircius. In the Battle of Mutina, which Octavian wins, they tragically perish, and Antony, defeated with part of the army, manages to escape over the mountains where he finds refuge in the camp of another Caesar’s general, Mark Lepidus. The speech Antonius delivered at that time impressed Lepidus’ soldiers, who saw in him a leader.
Octavian, on the other hand, returned to Rome with eleven legions (55,000 soldiers), and the Senate declared him consul. Noticing Octavian’s strength, Mark Antony exchanged several letters with him, after which an agreement was reached on joint rule between Antony, Lepidus, and Octavian, known as the Second Triumvirate.
The three of them divided the empire at that time and decided on the removal of political enemies. Antony wanted to execute Cicero because of a series of speeches he had given against him, and despite all of Octavian’s efforts to prevent it, Cicero met his end. He paid for his integrity with his life.
After political disputes in Rome itself, the gathered triumvirs set out to war against Cassius and Brutus, whom they defeated in the Battle of Philippi in northern Greece. Shortly after this victory, Antony went to quell the unrest in the eastern part of the Empire, while Octavian stayed in Rome to take care of the western part. Antony’s wife Fulvia and his brother Lucius, dissatisfied with Octavian’s popularity, began plotting a conspiracy. The third civil war begins, which ends in defeat, and thereafter the persecution of Fulvia and Lucius. Upon returning from the eastern front, Antony swore that he had no connection to the conspiracy. Octavian believed him and, given that Antony’s wife had died in exile, he gives him the hand of his older sister Octavia, whom he loved deeply.
Antony returns to the east, for a military campaign against the Parthians, but also because of the Egyptian queen Cleopatra. Enthralled by her beauty, he began granting Roman provinces to her and her children. He dressed like an Egyptian and neglected his obligations to Rome. In 31 BC, this resulted in a great naval battle near Actium, close to Corfu. Octavian defeated Antony and Cleopatra, who then took their own lives, and Egypt became a Roman province.
While serving as the commander of the African provinces, Mark Antony abused his position, which led Octavian to strip him of his territories. However, he did not take away Antony’s position as the high priest (Pontifex Maximus), which he held even before the triumvirate.
Renewal of Rome
With the end of the civil wars and the establishment of peace, Octavian takes complete control and begins a systematic renewal of Rome. The key to this renewal was the introduction of a purified aristocracy into the Senate, consisting of nobility with untarnished lineage and past.
The Senate, which at the time had over a thousand senators, had become slow and inefficient. Octavian reduces the number of senators to four hundred but increases their powers, thus making the Senate, like in the old Roman Republic, the main legislative body responsible for passing laws. It controlled the ruler and finances. It reduced the powers of the national assemblies because they were abusing their position, and it also reduced the military to a number of soldiers it could afford to pay.
A coin with Augustus’ depiction
The religious revival of Rome was something that Octavian dedicated special attention to. He revived many ancient Roman traditions and ceremonies – the most famous of which were the Lupercalia and the Secular Games. He restored neglected temples and built new ones. He proposed to the Senate that they begin each session with prayers to the gods, which the Senate accepted. He was tireless in fulfilling his duties and often quoted the Stoic maxim in the Senate: “We also need to be soldiers, on a campaign where there is no rest or relief.”
He gave the building of the high priest to the Vestal Virgins to live in and further increased their prestige. At the age of 44, he went to Greece where he was initiated into the Eleusinian Mysteries. From 13 BC, when Marcus Lepidus died, until his own death, he was He is serving as the High Priest.
Marko Agripa
His time is remembered for his architectural achievements. He built a large number of roads, aqueducts, and baths; he built the first amphitheater, the Pantheon, and renovated the Mars Field and many other public buildings in Rome. He also introduced pensions for retired soldiers and increased the free wheat ration. He did not resort to new taxes to achieve what he had planned. During his peaceful reign, the provinces experienced economic prosperity.
In 23 BC, he became a tribune, which allowed him to summon the Senate at will and determine the subjects of debate. The position of tribune was traditionally associated with the people, so his power increased even more. This year is usually considered the year when Octavian became the Roman emperor.
However, the burden of duties that he carried on his shoulders took a toll on his health. After recovering from a serious illness in 27 BC, he announced to the Senate his decision: “I will no longer be your leader. I return your freedom and the republic.” Go; take over the army and conquered provinces and rule according to ancient customs. The Senate did not accept the offered resignation, but as proof of their loyalty, they brought a series of provisions in favor of Octavian. First, they adorned the door of his house with laurel, then in the golden shield in the Senate building, as a sign of recognition, they inscribed how they respect his virtue, mercy, justice, and kindness. Senator Plank, a former consul, proposed that Octavian carry another title with his name – Augustus (the Exalted), a title that was later carried by all Roman emperors.
Augustus’s army never numbered more than 300,000 soldiers, but its strength lay in good organization, discipline, and loyalty.
Before Augustus’s reign, the Roman state was torn apart by almost a century-long social unrest and civil wars. Thanks to his diplomatic ability, he avoided several wars and concluded many peace agreements. He thus prevented further warfare with the Parthians, Scythians, Germans, and Spaniards. a, leading wars only with the goal of consolidation, not expansion of Roman territory. He ensured peace for Rome (Pax Romana) that would last over two hundred years from his reign onwards. Never before had Rome and its allies experienced greater benefits of peace and prosperity than during the time when Augustus assumed absolute power, writes the Roman historian Strabo. As a sign of gratitude, the Senate decreed the construction of an altar dedicated to Augustus’ peace on the Field of Mars. The altar was named Ara Pacis (Altar of Peace). In 2 BC, the Senate bestowed upon Octavian a new title – Pater Patriae (Father of the Country). Prior to him, this title had been bestowed only on Cicero when he prevented the Catilinarian conspiracy without a civil war. The proposal to award Octavian this title was presented before the Senate by Senator Messala Corvinus, saying to him: May you and your household, Caesar Augustus, be accompanied by luck and divine favor, for we believe that in this way, we are praying for lasting prosperity for our country and happiness for our city. The Senate and the Roman people applaud. In you, Father of the homeland. August replied: Fathers, I have fulfilled my highest hopes. What more can I ask for from the immortal gods than to preserve your unanimous recognition until the last day of my life?
In the last years of his life, August transferred most of his authority to his successor Tiberius, preparing for the day when he would have to leave this world. And that day came. It was August 19, 14 AD. Lying in bed surrounded by friends, he quoted verses from a Greek drama: And now, having played my role well, gentlemen, please applaud and release me with praise. Sadness and sorrow prevailed in Rome. The funeral procession passed through the city, stopping at all the major temples in Rome, and halted at the Field of Mars, next to Augustus’s mausoleum. There, Augustus was placed on a pyre, which the centurions set alight. When the fire started to burn, an eagle was released from its cage, symbolizing the ascent of the soul to heaven. Augustus was declared a god, and sacrificial offerings were made in his honor.
Different Roman authors depict Octavian as a gentle, kind, and modest man who sacrificed himself for the good of the state and therefore enjoyed immense popular favor. They also mention that he had a good sense of humor and didn’t like to be praised. He dressed simply. He was moderate in his eating and drinking. He only slept a few hours, and the rest of the day he worked tirelessly. He is remembered as the first Roman emperor because the Roman Empire is the name for the Roman state after it was restructured by Octavian August.
He was a man with a mission, and he successfully fulfilled his role until the end, for the glory of the Roman Empire.