Glimpsing into the rich and vibrant history of Persia, or Iran, is like looking into a colorful kaleidoscope where many ancient civilizations and cultures of the old world intertwine.
The location of the Iranian plateau in the center of the then civilized world connected Iran on one side to Mesopotamia and Anatolia, and on the other side to Central Asia and the Caucasus. But at the height of its power, the vast Persian Empire included lands from Egypt and northern Greece, Macedonia, Ionia, Lydia, Assyria, Babylonia, all the way to regions along the borders of India and China. Within this immense empire, the Persians were a minority that did not have a specific Persian culture in all aspects, but undoubtedly they had a strong enough tradition to influence various peoples and cultures, and reciprocally take the best from them. Herodotus writes in his History: The Persians adopt foreign customs more than any other people. However, the Persians were both givers and receivers, and skillfully connected the finest achievements. a multitude of nations with their original traditions, from which a magnificent flower of Iranian culture has emerged.
When speaking about the history and culture of Iran, it is usually discussed in terms of the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods, although there is a more specific division into prehistoric period, Elamite period (approximately 4000 BC – 650 BC), Aryan migration and empire building period (1000 BC – 650 BC), and the Islamic period. In fact, when Iranian culture embraced Islam while retaining its own heritage, it became the Iran we know today.
The Persian civilization initially drew strength from deep Indo-Iranian sources. Among the settlers on the Iranian plateau, Zoroaster was a great teacher and legislator, as well as a reformer of the ancient Indo-Iranian religion. His name means “the one who carries light,” and his religion has different names: Mazdaism, Zoroastrianism, Magism, worship of fire, etc. In relation to the ancient Iranian religion, Porphyry speaks about it. which flows ljepote, that celestial source from which all beauty flows. Oh, from where we all come, as Michelangelo said, or as the great Persian sage Rumi says, to that land of peace where doubts vanish.
The Land of Aryans
Perzia or Iran? The name Perzia comes from the Iranian people Parsa and the corresponding part of the country in southern Iran (today’s Fars), which the ancient Greeks called Persis, hence they named the whole country with which they fought a fifty-year war Persia, and the people Persians. It is interesting that the Persians are mentioned in the Rigveda as Parshavas. The famous Achaemenid dynasty originated from Parsa, which created the first historical world empire in the 6th century BC. The name Persia was only recently replaced by the name Iran in 1935.
But still, since the Persians are just one of the Iranian peoples, the name Iran seems more appropriate. It also reflects the ancient roots of this people.
Namely, about five thousand years ago, Indo-European tribes, including the Iranians, lived a nomadic way of life on the Eurasian plains. Some of these tribes settled in the fertile areas and began to develop agricultural civilizations, while others continued their nomadic lifestyle in the vast steppes. From these ancient civilizations, the Iranian people emerged as one of the oldest and most significant ethnic groups in human history.
The tribes that were called Arya (“noble” or “born free”) eventually moved to two separate areas: one group settled in the Indus Valley, and the other in the region they called Aryanam Khshathram, or the Land of Aryans. This name gradually changed to Eran-Shahr and finally to Iran.
The new Aryan migrations brought new tribes to the Iranian region, primarily the Medes and Persians, who spoke an Indo-European language – the precursor to modern Persian. The Medes settled in the northwest part of the Iranian plateau, and the Persians in the south. The Medes were the first Iranian people to establish an independent state with Ecbatana (present-day Hamadan) as their capital.
However, before the Iranian tribes emerged on the historical stage, the first historically recorded civilization in present-day Iran was Elam, in today’s Khuzestan province, on the border with ancient Mesopotamia.
The cradle of Elam civilization
It seems that women in Elamite society enjoyed It is a significant place because they are very often depicted on the remains of reliefs. The life-size statue of the Elamite queen Napirasu, the wife of Untash-Napirisha, is another testimony to the power and influence of women in Elam. This sculpture, which weighs 1750 kilograms in its present form, is not only an artistic work but also the pinnacle of bronze casting skills. It is the largest metalwork belonging to the ancient East.
As trade exchange grew, the need for recording and storing data required writing. Crafts, architecture, sculpture, wheels and carts, cosmology, and metallurgy developed, and most importantly, writing. This was the beginning of civilization in the area known as the “cradle of civilization.”
While various achievements that led to the emergence of cities mark the beginning of civilization, the invention of writing separates “history” from “prehistory.” Early written documents from the Susiana lowlands are known as proto-Elamite. Proto-Elamite script differs from proto-Sumerian and appears to be They developed independently, probably around 3200 BC. The decimal system originated in Elam, while in Mesopotamia the base was twelve, not ten, and it spread throughout the Iranian plateau.
Between the 13th and 12th century BC, Elam reached its economic, political, and cultural peak under one of its most powerful kings, Untaš-Napiriša. Untaš-Napiriša’s name is connected with the founding of the royal city near the Diz River, called Dur-Untaša, which is now known as Čoga Zanbil. In the ceremonial center of the city, there was a magnificent ziggurat estimated to have had an original height of about fifty meters. Today, only two complete levels of the ziggurat and a small section of the third level remain, standing about twenty-five meters above the surrounding plains.
Over time, the Elamite civilization came to an end. Centuries of wars with Mesopotamian rivals and the emergence of new peoples weakened Elam. In 646 BC, Susa and other Elamite cities fell under the joint forces of the Assyrians and their allies. The Assyrian king Ashurbanipal looted and destroyed the Elamite cities. However, a quarter of a century later, the Medes attacked the Assyrians and finally defeated them. Anshan, from the Achaemenid dynasty, conquered Teisp, and that city would become the core of the future Persian Empire.
Chogha Zanbil, the remains of a ziggurat dedicated to the Elamite god Inshushinak, the protective deity of Susa, whose name means “Lord of Susa.”
The graphic reconstruction of the gardens at Pasargadae shows that Cyrus the Great built a meticulously designed park in his capital city, Pasargadae, which was located in a vast plain. The royal park was irrigated by a system of stone-lined water channels, which are still preserved. These channels divided the royal gardens into four parts (chahar-bagh); the four-fold layout of the garden later became a trademark of Persian, and subsequently Islamic, gardens.
Persepolis, a jewel in the Persian crown, is the most beautiful example of pre-Islamic Iranian architecture. The Persian name for Persepolis is Takht-e Jamshid because the complex was dedicated to the legendary king Jamshid. of subjects, who were mostly artisans and slaves, lived in small settlements surrounding the city. The magnificent complex was adorned with elaborate carvings, sculptures, and inscriptions, depicting the grandeur and power of the Persian Empire. Unfortunately, this awe-inspiring city was destroyed by Alexander the Great in 330 BC, leaving only ruins as a testament to its former glory. It was made of wood. Wooden pillars, giant cedar beams, and wooden structures, along with a multitude of furniture, columns, and tall curtains, explain why the fire ignited by Alexander and his Macedonian army in 330 BC destroyed this complex. Until its excavation in the 20th century, much was hidden in the ruins, with only a few pillars proudly standing with huge capitals shaped like two-headed bulls, griffins, and bulls with human heads as magnificent monuments of a glorious past civilization.
World Empire
The Medes and Persians were united in 559 BC by Cyrus, later known as the Great, and began the creation of the first world empire. Xenophon wrote that Cyrus the Great “overshadowed all other rulers, both before and after him.” For centuries, he was considered a model of a good ruler and an advocate for religious tolerance, which is why his name is mentioned twice in the Bible. According to classical historians, Cyrus the Great founded the Persian Empire, and his son Cambyses conquered Egypt, and Darius I, the most famous Achaemenid king, expanded Persian rule to the farthest borders. With a relief on his tomb at Naqsh-e Rustam, near Persepolis, Darius proudly begins the inscription: I am Darius, the great king, king of kings, (…), Achaemenid, Persian, son of a Persian, Aryan, from the Aryan lineage…
During the period from 550 to 520 BC, the Achaemenids annexed most of the known world to their empire. Darius explicitly states on the Behistun Rock, which carries the record of Persian history: King Darius says: These are the lands that belonged to me; by the grace of Ahura Mazda, I became their king: Persia, Susa, Babylon, Assyria, Arabia, Egypt, (lands) on the sea, Media, Sparta, Ionia, Armenia, Cappadocia, Parthia, Drangiana, Aria, Khwarezm, Bactria, Sogdiana, Gandhara, Scythia, Sattagydia, Arachosia, and Maka; a total of twenty-three lands.
The Persian Empire, famous for its legendary wealth and power, was the largest empire the world had seen up to that time. Oh, the first world empire that included “many nations of many languages”. It was governed by the great “King of kings” whose court moved to four main cities according to the seasons: Susa and Babylon were used in autumn and winter, Ecbatana, located about eighteen hundred meters above sea level, in summer, and Persepolis for special events and ceremonies, mainly for receptions of the empire’s subjects on the occasion of the Nowruz festivities (New Year). However, Susa was still the most important political and economic center.
Regarding Persian customs, Herodotus writes in his History: About Persian life and customs, I know this: they do not make or erect statues, temples, or altars at all, considering those who do so to be fools, in my opinion, because they did not conceive of gods like the Greeks, in the form of humans. They have a custom of climbing mountain tops and offering sacrifices to Zeus-Ahura Mazda. They call the entire celestial vault by the name of Ahura Mazda. Similarly, they offer sacrifices to the Sun, Moon, Earth, Fire, Water, and Winds. And only these There have been sacrifices since ancient times.
Darius’ sculpture, one of the four made in Egypt. One of them stood in the temple of Heliopolis. The whole sculpture was originally 3m tall and carved out of a single piece of dark greenish-gray stone from Wadi Hammata. The inscription in Egyptian hieroglyphics, Elamite, Babylonian, and Old Persian cuneiform says: This is the stone statue of Darius, who ordered it to be made in Egypt so that in the future those who see it will know that a Persian ruled over Egypt.
Their concern for justice in the ancient world was proverbial. Darius the Great introduced a code of laws known as the “Decree of Good Rules,” which were implemented in all distant lands, as recorded on the Behistun Rock. Several languages and scripts were used officially: Elamite, Babylonian, Aramaic, Egyptian hieroglyphics, and Greek. When in 521 BC Darius the Great ordered the creation of a new cuneiform script for Old Persian, he called it. he called it “Aryan” because it was used by different peoples of Iran. They also introduced an exceptionally efficient administrative system; the empire was divided into twenty tax districts, which the Greeks called satrapies (from the Old Persian word khahathrapa). Each satrapy was led by a governor or satrap, with the assistance of a military commander and treasurer, to prevent them from becoming too powerful. They also built an excellent communication network. The main Achaemenid royal road connected Susa in the heart of the empire with Sardis in western Anatolia, covering a distance of about 2575 kilometers. At regular intervals, there were milestones and royal stations with resting places and regular guards. However, this was only a part of a vast network of roads, as the entire road system amounted to nearly thirteen thousand kilometers. It was also connected to an efficient “postal service,” which Herodotus greatly praised.
During the Achaemenid period, extraordinary monumental architectural works were created, foremost among them being the magnificent Persepolis, and miracles were accomplished. Scientific and cultural research took place in places like Babylon, while artistic works flourished. In Susa, Darius the Great, gathering the best artists from all parts of the empire, built a monumental palace on a large terrace, of which unfortunately little remains today. In a trilingual inscription (Persian, Babylonian, and Elamite) engraved in cuneiform script on the palace walls, it mentions the members of different nations who contributed to the creation of this architectural masterpiece:
… The stone workers were Ionians and Sardinians. The goldsmiths who worked with gold were Medes and Egyptians. Those who worked with wood were Sardinians and Egyptians. Those who worked with baked bricks were Babylonians. Those who built the terraces were Medes and Egyptians. King Darius declares that the job was exceptionally well done. May Ahuramazda protect me, my father Histaspa, and my land.
Darius the Great’s undertakings are perhaps best exemplified by the completion of the Suez Canal (511 to 486 BC), which was started during his reign. The reign of Necha II was not completed. This event is recorded on several granite stelae found along the banks of the Nile. King Darius says: I am Persian. I came from Persia and conquered Egypt. I ordered that this canal be dug from the Nile River flowing in Egypt to the sea starting in Persia. When the canal was dug as I commanded, ships sailed from Egypt through this canal to Persia, as I envisioned.
After the death of Darius the Great in 486 BC, the beginnings of the end of Achaemenid power began to emerge, as only an exceptionally strong ruler could hold together such a vast empire. The conquest campaign of Alexander the Great, who plundered and burned Persepolis in 330 BC, marked the end of the Achaemenid Empire, which had ensured stability, prosperity, and cultural progress in the Middle East and beyond for over two hundred years.
The Achaemenids were remarkable administrators and patrons of monumental architecture and art. They established a multicultural and multiethnic society. in power that became a model of imperial organization for the Roman Empire in Europe and later for the Sasanian Empire in Iran.
Part of a relief from the palace in Persepolis.
Graphic reconstruction of the city of Ardashir Khurreh (Ardashir’s glory), near present-day Firuzabad. The circular city of Ardashir Khurreh, with a diameter of about two kilometers, with its historical monuments and surroundings, was the cradle of the Sasanian Empire, which lasted for over four hundred years, from 224 to 651. The radial plan of the city, spreading beyond the city walls and throughout the plain like twenty spokes of a giant wheel, shows the Sasanian state ideology, with a tower in the center as a symbol of the divinely granted centralizing royal authority. King Ardashir himself was raised in a family of Zoroastrian priests in the province of Fars and claimed ancestry from the Achaemenid kings. Ardashir Khurreh served as a model for the circular city of Baghdad, which was created over five hundred years later, and the famous spiral tower of the fire temple will be based on it. and the mosque in Samarra in present-day Iraq.
The Seleucids and the Parthians
Historians speculate that Alexander the Vandal sacked Persepolis in order to avenge the Persian destruction of Athens in 480-479 BC. However, he soon became enamored with the splendor of the Persian court, the size of the Persian Empire with its elaborate institutions, complex laws, regulations, and customs, and he proclaimed himself the successor of the Achaemenids. Alexander knew that his Greek and Macedonian warriors lacked the experience and ability to govern such a vast empire, so he enlisted Iranians into his personal service and married a Persian princess.
After Alexander’s sudden death in 323 BC, Iran was ruled by the Macedonian Seleucid dynasty for over a century, founded by his general Seleucus I. The Hellenistic period in Iran began in 331 BC and continued until around 250 BC. The main challenge faced by the Macedonian rulers was maintaining the unity of the empire, composed of a mosaic of different cultures, ethnicities, and religions.
Note: This translation is generated by an AI and may not be 100% accurate. Different cultures and ethnic groups were ruled by undesirable satraps, and there were frequent invasions by the Parthians, a confederation of tribes from the northeast who spoke the Persian language.
Eventually, the Parthians expelled the Seleucids from Iranian territories and, under their great leader Mithridates I, became the main political power in the ancient Middle East and the main rival of the Roman Empire for the next three and a half centuries. According to the Roman historian Tacitus, in the 1st century, when Rome and Iran disputed over Armenia and the appointment of a Parthian prince as the king of Armenia, the Parthian king Artaban II informed Rome that whatever was possessed by Cyrus and later Alexander was his unquestionable right, which he was determined to regain. The Parthians considered themselves the successors of Cyrus and Alexander, and they called themselves “philhellenists,” with Greek being their official language. The process of Hellenization led to syncretic religions in which Greek cults were mixed with Iranian, Indian, Egyptian, etc., and Zoroastrianism lost its significance. Oh. The influence of Hellenism was also felt in Parthian art, but almost none of it has been preserved to this day.
During the Parthian period, the boundaries of the empire were extended to the Oxus River (Amu Darya), making the Parthians neighbors with China. During this period, trade relations with China were established to such an extent that Chinese emperors sent their envoys to the Parthian court. Thus, a permanent trade route between the East and the West was formed, which would later be called the Silk Road. Centuries before Marco Polo set foot in China, Iranian merchants dominated the trade between China and Europe.
However, in 224 AD, the Parthians were replaced by a new Persian dynasty – the Sasanids.
The Sasanid kings carved impressive reliefs on the slopes of the mountains, depicting their most glorious exploits. Bahram I and Bahram II are shown on the relief at Naqsh-e Rostam, from the 3rd century.
The Sasanid fire temple near the city of Masada. Fire plays an important role in Zoroastrian rituals. Many preserved fire temples throughout Iran testify to this. According to tradition, Zoroaster lived around 1000 BC, although no one knows for certain when he was born or died.
The remains of the royal palace in Ctesiphon (near present-day Baghdad) are the best example of colossal Sasanian architecture. The structure was dominated by a massive vaulted arch, 43.5 meters deep, 25.5 meters wide, and with a height to the top of the vault of 36 meters. Originally built of brick, it had mosaic and stucco decorations in exposed areas. Ctesiphon was an extremely cosmopolitan environment where Persians, Arabs, Armenians, Indians, Africans, Chinese, Syrians, Greeks, and Romans lived.
Sasanids
When Ardashir I, son of Papak, an ambitious and powerful ruler of Fars, established the Sasanian dynasty, he proclaimed himself the “King of Kings,” following the example of the old Achaemenid kings. The Sasanids called their empire Iran or Eranshahr, and they chose Ctesiphon as their capital. The era of the Sasanids is considered one of the most important periods in the history of Iran. As the known world of ancient times consisted of the Far East, the Roman Empire in the West, and the Sasanid Empire in the middle, the Sasanid Empire was not only a link between the East and the West but also had a much more centralized administration than the Parthians and introduced Zoroastrianism as the state religion. Seeking to restore ancient Aryan traditions and strengthen national unity in their vast land, Ardashir appointed a religious leader alongside each provincial satrap, distributing selected positions to the magi, giving them great power in society. Under the rule of Ardashir’s son Shapur I (the Great), the supreme priest Kartir boasts in one account that he established temples of Fire in all regions reconquered by the Persian army, which protected the Magi communities: “In the Kingdom of Persia, I have united many fires and magi. And also in non-Persian lands… wherever the King of Kings’ horses and men have reached.” Crossroads of civilizations. Trade provided a rich source of income that enabled the emergence of monumental architecture and flourishing art. Sasanian kings were known as “city builders.” It is generally accepted that vaults and domes were achievements of Sasanian architects. Under the patronage of the Sasanian court, the first Persian university was founded in the 5th century in Gondeshapur, southwestern Iran, on the model of which the university in Baghdad was established. Medicine, mathematics, philosophy, music, etc. were studied, and Iranian and Indian professors taught. With the fall of the Sasanids, the university also collapsed as it lost financial support.
Winged ibex.
Miniature painting and calligraphy from Firdausi’s book Shahnameh, 16th century.
However, numerous wars with the Roman Empire and later with Byzantium lasting over two centuries exhausted the Sasanian Empire. In addition, it was seriously shaken by internal unrest: dynastic manipulations, corruption, rebellions by satraps, and movements that they sought spiritual and moral revival (Manichaeism and Mazdaism). Pressed from all sides, while trying to sustain themselves, the Sasanian theocracy introduced unreasonable strict religious and moral regulations. Gradually, cultic elements (sacrifices, complex rituals) that had little to do with the simple and uplifting teachings of Zoroaster, usually summarized as “Good thoughts – good words – good deeds,” would prevail. Such ossified neo-Mazdaism no longer fulfilled its role as a social bond, so the people quickly succumbed to the invasion of Islamic forces in the mid-7th century. This marked the beginning of a new era in world history. The Sasanians, along with Zoroastrianism, concluded their historical chapter, and Iran began new pages of its history by accepting Islam.
THE GOLDEN AGE OF PERSIA
History is filled with examples of old, powerful civilizations gradually losing their strength, only for new, young cultures to take their place. The Arabs, a desert people, who had not played a significant historical role until then, were ignited by the flame of faith in the prophet Muhammad and in their enthusiasm, they spread and conquered lands from Spain to the borders of Mongolia, passing on the flame of faith to other peoples. In Iran, Islam was able to establish itself as the main religion over the course of a century. Seyyed Hossein Nasr, an Iranian professor at George Washington University, states: Islam – which literally means peace and submission to God – proclaimed universal brotherhood, giving dignity and social value to the common man. Islam brought a revelation that poured like rain into the soul of the Iranian people who were prepared to accept this new message due to many social, religious, and political events. The receptiveness was evident among the majority of Iranians. They had already created a very significant civilization before the rise of Islam, but the intellectual aspect of Iranian civilization flourished with the arrival of Islam.
Once Islam took hold, Iran changed more profoundly than ever before. The Persians were influenced by the Arabs. As a people and Islam as a new religion, which were open to new ideas, brought the experience of an ancient, well-established, and refined civilization. However, since Arabs did not have an artistic tradition, this gap was filled by Iranian artists and craftsmen, so that the first transitional period has a strong Iranian influence. Over time, the Arab-Persian civilization began to develop, from which the Islamic civilization emerged, which became dominant in all areas of Arab dominance.
The command of the Prophet Muhammad that both men and women should learn and acquire knowledge from cradle to grave encouraged Muslims to learn. Islam, which emphasized brotherhood and equality, gave impetus to the lower classes, who were disenfranchised in Sassanian society, and encouraged them to improve their social status through acquiring knowledge. While Europe fell into the Middle Ages, Muslim scholars revived ancient Greek knowledge. They were the ones who, six hundred years before the birth of Leonardo da Vinci, laid the foundations In the Renaissance period, many Iranian Muslims became prominent figures in medicine and other scientific fields from the 9th century. The greatest among them were Avicenna and Razi. Avicenna was one of the leading figures of that time in philosophy, medicine, and pharmacology. His writings in Persian and Arabic were translated into all major languages of the time. His collection of medical treatises known as the Canon was a foundational text at Oxford and Montpellier universities until the 17th century. Razi, who is credited with isolating alcohol and its use in medicine as an antiseptic, was another incredibly versatile figure, being a physician, physicist, philosopher, alchemist, and renowned for the large number of books on medicine, translations of which were widely used in European universities. Al-Khwarizmi, an Iranian mathematician, geographer, and astronomer, from whose Latinized name Algorithms the word “algorithm” originates, is called the “father of algebra” because he authored a work in which he presents its foundations. He is also credited for bringing the number system as we know it today, the so-called Arabic, originally Indian, from the Islamic world to the West, which had previously used the Roman numerals. This list should also include Al-Biruni, an Iranian scholar who calculated the geographical positions of cities, mountains, seas, islands, etc.
Complex calligraphy, geometric and floral patterns on the dome of the madrasa, 17th century, Safavid dynasty, Isfahan.
Features of Islamic Art in Iran
The fusion of Persian and Arabic traditions has mostly manifested itself in the flourishing of calligraphy, architecture, and literature. The innate artistic sensibility of Iranians and their love for beauty enabled them to bring Islamic art to perfection, inspired by the Islamic principle “God is beautiful and loves beauty,” thus leading Iran to a golden age. The Iranian contribution is greatest in those unique and dominant characteristics of Islamic art: calligraphy, geometry, and arabesque.
More The spread of Islam was accompanied by the construction of mosques and madrasas (religious schools), leading to rapid development of Islamic architecture in Iran, thanks to the architectural experience of the Sasanids. This was a creative stimulus for scholars, artists, and craftsmen. The art of making and using ceramic tiles for covering and decorating mosques, madrasas, and palaces, which include calligraphic inscriptions from the Quran, geometric patterns, and arabesques, closely followed the architecture. Although the production of ceramic tiles as decoration is part of the ancient traditions of Mesopotamia and Elam, this art experienced an unprecedented rise in Islamic art. Namely, Chinese porcelain arrived in Islamic territories through trade routes. In an attempt to uncover the secret of porcelain production, the Iranians made many other important discoveries that enriched ceramic technology. One of the inventions was tin glaze, which, thanks to its translucent ivory color, resembled porcelain. By coating it with a silver and copper alloy, a glossy finish was achieved. They had a metallic shine, mostly in golden-yellow, but also in red and green-blue tones. Tiles made using this technique were particularly popular throughout the Islamic world. The most beautiful ceramics were created in the workshops of Kashan and Rayy. As Islam forbids the depiction of living beings, motifs were mainly limited to calligraphic inscriptions and the painting of stylized plant motifs and geometric ornamentation, with a combination of plant and geometric patterns giving rise to dense arabesques. Colored ceramics were often used in combination with fired bricks, giving buildings a special charm. The widespread use of multicolored ceramics in the decoration of both exterior and interior surfaces began during the Seljuk dynasty and reached its peak during the Timurid and Safavid periods.
Muqarnas in the Palace of the Alhambra, Spain.
Khorasan and the Renaissance of the Persian Language
Upon embracing the Islamic faith, the Arabic script and Arabic language as the holy language of Islam, particularly in northeastern Iran, especially in Khorasan, began. I revived Iranians with the Persian language; and therefore I will not die but live forever through the seeds of my sown words… Although written in poetic form, Shahnameh is not only a literary work, but also has historical elements based on the book Khodaynam created in the Sassanid era.
Epics, mystical Sufi poetry, love poetry, are the pride of the Persian language, and it is rightly said that the glory of Persian genius is best revealed in poetry.
Johann Wolfgang Goethe was so amazed by Hafez’s Divan that he wrote a collection of lyrical poems called West-Eastern Divan. He wrote the following about it: Suddenly, I found myself face to face with the divine scent of the East and the invigorating breeze of eternity blowing from the fertile plains and other parts of Persia.
Few nations can boast such richness and beauty of poetry, and love for poetry like the Iranians. They have built beautiful mausoleums for their favorite poets and Sufis (Hafiz, Saadi, F, It is fascinating that Persian poetry captivated even the Turkish conquerors, who became its protectors.
In whose orchard flowers always bloom,
And in whose garden tulips and hyacinths grow.
Ferdowsi
In summary, the four hundred years that followed the arrival of Islam in the 7th century brought a unique fusion of cultures to Iran – unique because Iran accepted Islam while also retaining a certain level of continuity with its own heritage. In relation to this, American Iranologist Arthur Upham Pope writes: Arab followers of the Prophet conquered Persia in the mid-7th century with the sword. Since they were nomads who did not nurture art, Persian art and culture, in turn, conquered the Arabs and through them, the majority of the Islamic world, from Spain to India. While Europe slumbered in the Dark Ages, Islamic science and art illuminated the other half of the world, and although other countries also played a role in this, the main source of light was Persia. One of the towers, or rather mausoleums, called Kharaqan near Qazvin, in northern Iran, were built in the 11th century. They are made of bricks arranged in a unique pattern, about 15 meters high and 4 meters in diameter. They are an outstanding example of Seljuk architecture.
Arrival of the Seljuks
Since ancient times, the eastern borders of Iran have been exposed to nomadic peoples of different origins who attacked in repeated and unpredictable waves. In the 11th century, a large nomadic alliance of Turkish origin, known as the Seljuks, broke into northern Iran and established themselves as a local dynasty with a powerful army. Although originally nomadic shepherds, the Seljuks transformed into rulers of a centralized state with the help of the existing Iranian government, further improved and organized by the famous vizier Nizam al-Mulk. This same vizier founded universities in Nishapur and other major cities – two centuries before the establishment of the first European university in Bologna. In his honor, these schools were called “madrasas”, which subsequently became a model for the development of higher education institutions in the Muslim world. The educational institutions with a unique campus system are called nizamiyas.
From the first sight, what follows astonishment
His heart in his eyes, eyes in his heart.
Nizami
The Seljuks were enchanted by Iranian culture, the beauty of music, poetic words, miniatures, etc., and in a very short time, they became more Iranian than the Iranians themselves. The Seljuk period in Iran (1037 – 1194) is probably one of the most brilliant periods of artistic creation in the history of Iran and is considered a classical period of Islamic art.
Sultanieh, the mausoleum of Muhammad Khodabandeh, was built between 1302 and 1312. In addition to the dome, which is compared in terms of its architectural solutions to Brunelleschi’s, perhaps the boldest innovation of the building was the crown of eight minarets that once surrounded the dome. The idea of using several minarets was enthusiastically copied in buildings of later periods, such as Ottoman mosques and the Taj Mahal. Andre Godard described this great structure as follows: “There is a dome with a diameter of eight… ” The dome, with a height of 24.5 meters, is made entirely of bricks, without any type of support pillars, towers, or consoles, standing simply with a perfectly designed and engineered profile… a blue dome, with a dazzling wreath of minarets, as if floating in the air. This effect was undoubtedly planned by the designer and achieved elegantly and with obvious effortless naturalness.
This period brought another innovation – the so-called muqarnas, a type of construction with honeycomb-shaped niches that influenced the entire Islamic world. Prof. Marianne Barrucand from the Sorbonne in Paris says: The liveliest and strongest thing that emerged in the Seljuk period is a kind of discovery that spread from Iran to Morocco and Spain, and that is muqarnas in stucco and other types of decorations.
Dedicated Muslims, the Seljuks particularly appreciated Persian poetry, which had already intertwined with Sufi mysticism in this period, so the people of that time are called “jewelers of words”. Indeed, e and inspiration za brojne duše koje su tražile putovanje prema Bogu. U svojim djelima, perzijski pjesnici prenose duboku vezu duše s Stvoriteljem, a njihovi stihovi otkrivaju težnju za spajanjem s Božanskom ljepotom. Kroz putovanje kroz različite faze ljubavi, oni traže istinsko sjedinjenje sa Stvoriteljem i sagledavanje njegove vječne ljepote. Ti pjesnici su bili posebni pojedinci koji su imali izvanredan senzibilitet i koji su prepoznali postojanje božanskog izvora iza materijalnog svijeta. Njihova duboka intuicija i uvid omogućili su im da dođu do vrata Božanstva. Kao što Rumi ističe, da bi se srce povezalo s Bogom, pojedinac mora napustiti samoga sebe. Perzijski pjesnici prenose tu jasnu poruku i nadu da je sjedinjenje s Bogom moguće, ali zahtijeva potpunu predanost i odricanje od sebe. Njihova djela ostaju izvor inspiracije za brojne duše koje tragaju za dubljim duhovnim iskustvom i ljubavi prema Stvoritelju. Emotions and joys that no other poet in world literature has surpassed.
Saadi was an indefatigable traveler, teacher, and moralist; his sayings are a treasure trove of wisdom. However, the most popular poetry in Iran is still enjoyed by Hafiz, which tells of love, beauty, and selflessness, revealing the mentality of the Iranian people.
The moon climbs and shines in a May night
And hangs in the leaves like a bloody orange.
The lily sends him its scent full of longing,
The nightingale sings him the most beautiful love songs –
But he passes through the sky cold and proud.
You are the moon, my dear, and longing is the lily,
longing is my heart’s desire.
My lips are the nightingale’s,
which plead with you every spring evening,
But you are like the moon
in the freezing breath of the night,
You pass by, silent, cold, and proud.
The Imam Zadeh Mahroq Mosque in Nishapur, 11th century.
Texts adorned with illuminated and gilded margins and various ornaments, National Library of France. Illuminated manuscripts reached their peak during the Timurid era.
The Timurid Goharshad Mosque in Mashhad, Khorasan. The mosque is named after Queen Goharshad, the wife of Timurid ruler Shah Rukh, who ordered its construction. The mosque was completed in 1418. The main architect was Ghavameddin Shirazi, an Iranian from Shiraz, who designed many of Shah Rukh’s buildings, and the builders were mostly from Shiraz and Isfahan. The mosque has four iwans, a spacious courtyard measuring 50 × 55 meters, and several shabestans (basement rooms used during hot summer months as they had a type of natural air conditioning using badgirs – windcatchers – and kanats – underground wells, ancient Iranian architectural inventions).
Like cypresses
The period of one hundred and fifty years of cultural and artistic progress was halted by the infamous Mongol hordes of Genghis Khan, who conquered China in the 13th century and then turned towards Iran and the rest of the Islamic world, destroying everything in their path.
Despite being plundered, Iran stood tall like cypresses, a strong symbol in Iranian culture.
In the collective consciousness of the ancestors since Aryan times, which bends and returns to its original state under the blows of the wind. Namely, as the Mongolian nomads had a tribal culture, they lacked the knowledge and skills necessary to manage the land of such a high civilization, so they had to heavily rely on Iranian institutions and administrative forces. On the other hand, Iranian culture had a great regenerative capacity, so after two generations they became its fervent worshippers and supporters.
Gradually, they converted to Islam, and their ruling dynasty, the Ilkhans, chose the northwestern Iranian city of Tabriz as their capital. At that time, Tabriz was a cosmopolitan city that maintained trade links with two major European cities: Venice and Genoa. Marco Polo describes Tabriz as follows: A great city surrounded by beautiful and pleasant gardens; it is excellently located, so that goods are brought here from India, Baghdad, Mosul, and Hormuz. From many other regions, and Latin merchants, especially the Genoese, go there to buy goods that come from foreign countries.
In the suburbs of Tabriz, Rashid al-Din Monafiq built Rab-i Rashidi, the City of Science, where he employed scholars, doctors, and craftsmen. The city included twenty-four caravanserais, one thousand five hundred shops, thirty thousand houses, and special quarters for scholars who gathered there from all over the country.
Sufism and poetry were flourishing again, and the art of bookmaking produced the most beautiful Persian manuscript illuminations, while architecture took on the most magnificent attire with brilliant majolica.
The Ilkhanid architecture is largely a continuation of the Seljuk style, although its peculiarity is the gradual introduction of color into architecture. Multicolored ceramic decorations become a kind of decorative cloak for the building.
However, peace and prosperity were suddenly interrupted by another invasion from Central Asia in the late 14th century, this time led by Timur Lenk. Like the previous conquerors, these too soon succumbed to the beneficial Iranian influence. Timur established himself in Samarkand, where he systematically brought Iranian scholars and artists, and Persian was declared the official language. Thus, the political focus, as well as artistic creation, shifted from the west to the east of Iran, where a Timurid renaissance occurred. In such an environment, Timur’s descendant Babur was born, who would establish the Mughal dynasty in India.
Mughal rulers would maintain close ties with Iran, and Persian would also be the official language at their court. The art of illuminated manuscripts, also known as book illustration art, reached its peak during this period.
Professor Richard Frye from Harvard University says: The art of book illustration is indeed the pinnacle of Iranian art. …You will often find inscriptions in museums such as “Islamic art,” “Islamic book,” and the like, but in ninety-nine percent of cases, it originates from Iran. It was a major center of Islamic art.
After the decline of Timurid power, fragmented Iran was ruled by several independent dynasties. Part of the country even fell into the hands of neighboring Uzbeks and Ottoman Turks. Interestingly, during the rule of foreign Turkish and Mongolian dynasties such as the Seljuks, Ilkhanids and Timurids, the Iranian identity was preserved because they all adopted Persian culture and language, which was the language of the cultural peoples throughout the vast area of Central Asia.
The music room of Ali Qapu Palace, Isfahan.
Ali Qapu Palace was built in 1644 by order of Shah Abbas. The seven-story palace, forty-eight meters high, also served as the main entrance to all the court buildings in the Naqsh-e Jahan square. On the third floor, there is a large balcony with a marble fountain in the center; from there, Safavid rulers observed military parades and games, received delegations, etc. On the top, seventh floor, there is a unique acoustic “Music room,” the work of the famous builder Reza Abbasi. In the On the walls of this floor, there are creatively designed niches that house containers made of extremely thin glass, which contribute to the acoustics of the space and also reflect the creativity and resourcefulness of Iranian artists and builders. Si-o-se pol , the most famous example of Safavid bridge construction, consists of thirty-three double arches.
SAFAVIDS
The inexhaustible vitality of Iranian tradition was once again confirmed in the early 16th century when the Safavid dynasty rose in northwestern Iran. The Safavids gradually united the fragmented country, established law and order, and introduced a strong centralized government. The re-established Iranian nation-state became the core of an empire that at its peak included Azerbaijan, Armenia, most of Iraq, Georgia, Afghanistan, and the Caucasus, as well as parts of Pakistan, Turkmenistan, and Turkey.
By introducing Shiite Islam as the national religion, replacing the previous Sunni belief, the Safavids also marked the beginning of a new era in the history of Iran. This form of Islam seems to have suited the Persian mentality better, as the cult of Ali, crucial in Shiism, was also inseparably linked to the development of Sufi orders since the 13th century.
The Safavid dynasty itself traces its origins Ijene from a Shi’ite Sufi order founded in the 14th century by Sheikh Safi ad-Din Ardebili. This order, later called Safaviyya, was established in the city of Ardebil in northwest Iran, from where it spread to other parts of the country under the successors of Sheikh Safi. Over time, it gained political and military power, and its charismatic leader Shah Ismail ruled over all of Iran in 1509. Thanks to him and his successors, Shah Tahmasp and especially Shah Abbas the Great, there was an extraordinary revitalization of Iranian culture, which flourished abundantly for almost two centuries, until the death of Shah Abbas.
Reign of Shah Abbas
The most prominent Safavid ruler, Shah Abbas, ascended the throne in 1587. By expelling the Uzbeks in the northeast and the Ottomans in the northwest for political and economic reasons, he relocated his capital from Qazvin in the northwest of the country to Isfahan in the heart of the Iranian plateau.
While Shah Ismail was a true lover of art, and culture, so when he ascended the throne, he ordered the construction of a larger number of libraries and workshops for artists and craftsmen in his service. It seems that the magnificent architectural achievements of Shah Abbas, which is why he was called “The Great,” were more politically and economically motivated. He particularly encouraged the production of expensive carpets and textiles that were in high demand in Europe and elsewhere, so the textile industry with its main centers in Tabriz, Isfahan, Yazd, Kashan, and Rasht played a crucial role in establishing economic prosperity. To strengthen the trade network, he built numerous caravanserais or inns, bridges, and roads throughout the country, established bazaars, and turned Isfahan itself into a vibrant trading center. He sought closer ties with European countries, seeing them as allies against the common Ottoman enemy, and in that sense, he had a port built in Bandar-e Abbas. He also aimed to bring his own country to a level of progress that was already admirable. In Europe.
The flourishing economy of Abasovo has enabled magnificent architectural ventures in the capital itself, urban planning has developed like never before in Iran, and Isfahan has reached unprecedented heights of splendor and elegance in the Islamic world.
Although the architecture of this era is less original compared to earlier periods, a major architectural innovation of this period is the confident mastery of vast space. The whole city radiated the imperial spirit of Safavid rule, which is still reflected today in the main square, Naqsh-e Jahan Square, measuring 500 x 160 meters, which was the symbolic center of the Safavid dynasty and its empire. It was used for hosting ceremonies, fairs, games, etc. The square is surrounded by buildings on all four sides: the Shah Abbas Mosque (Imam’s Mosque) on the south side, the Shah Lotfollah Mosque on the east, the Ali Qapu Palace on the west, and the entrance to the grand bazaar on the north side. Thus, Shah Abbas united his own power with the power of the clergy at Maidan. All these main buildings are practically the work of one man, Shah Abbas, who, in his forty-year rule, completely reconstructed the city and built a four-kilometer-long avenue, or promenade, with rows of trees and beautiful gardens, modeled after those of Cyrus the Great in Pasargadae. This avenue, called Chahar Bagh, was the arterial link between the older city quarters and its new residential areas. It started at the main city square, Naqsh-e Jahan, and led to a beautiful bridge over the Zayandeh River. However, the beautiful mosques surpass everything with their beauty, being the main symbol of Islamic culture and as such, the focus of artistic expressions. Architects gave the most freedom to their inventiveness in constructing and decorating mosques. They are the shining masterpieces of Iranian architecture, with an indescribable multitude of details that leave the observer speechless, with their harmonious beauty and the tranquility they evoke… They have preserved their freshness, which is only characteristic of top-quality works, up to our days… According to Professor Robert Hillenbrand from the University of Edinburgh, when he visits Isfahan, he is always struck by the magical feeling of the place. Like other similar places that attract visitors from around the world, it is not always easy to determine what it is exactly. Safavid architecture has a marvelous ability for theatrics, for orchestrating climaxes, and for managing the stage. That is the great strength of Safavid architecture.
The Naqsh-e Jahan Square is one of the largest squares in the world, about seven times larger than St. Mark’s Square in Venice.
The Mausoleum of Sheikh Safi, Ardebil.
The Shah Abbas Mosque/ Imam Mosque is one of the most extraordinary buildings in Iran. This mosque marked the pinnacle of a building campaign that turned Isfahan into the Safavid capital. It is located on the south side of Naqsh-e Jahan Square and, together with the entire complex on the square, is an architectural masterpiece on UNESCO’s list of world cultural heritage sites. No. The construction lasted for 26 years and was completed in 1638.
Abbas’ caravanserai in Isfahan, the most famous of caravanserais, has been renovated and transformed into the most elegant hotel in Iran with its traditional splendor. It was built next to a madrasa. During the Safavid period, the profits from this caravanserai were used to cover the maintenance costs of the madrasa and student scholarships.
The Sheikh Lotf Allah Mosque, built during the reign of Shah Abbas and dedicated to his father-in-law, Sheikh Lotf Allah, who was one of the main religious leaders of that time. The construction itself lasted for 18 years (1602/3 – 1618/19), and the architect was Muhammad Reza Isfahani. This mosque is unique for several reasons. It consists of a domed room, without typical features such as four iwans, a courtyard, and minarets, as it was built for private royal needs rather than large gatherings. Both the exterior and interior are adorned with a beautiful mantle of exquisitely rich and harmonious patterned ceramic tiles. The interior is angle The mosque is predominantly in blue tones, with one part made of yellow tiles giving the impression of the sun shining from within. This mosque is sometimes called the women’s mosque because there is a passage between it and Ali Qapu Palace that allowed women to go to the mosque away from the public eye.
The dome of Seyyed Roknoddin Mosque in Yazd.
During Abbas’s rule, Isfahan was an open city bustling with foreign diplomats and traders from China, India, Central Asia, Arabia, Turkey, and Europe, as well as artists, travelers, and adventurers. French jeweler Sir John Chardin, who wrote a book about his travels and stay in Safavid Persia, wrote: The Persians are the most civilized people in the East, and just as the French are in Europe, they are in the Orient… Safavid Iran became a model of excellence in the arts and had a strong influence on the other two great empires of the time: the Ottoman and the Mughal. For example, Iranian architects and craftsmen are largely responsible for the construction of the Taj Mahal. French art historian Rene Grousset stated: The Taj Mahal is the soul of Iran incarnated in the body of India. Another significant influence on India, in addition to Iranian architecture and literature, was the Iranian technique of miniature painting. Miniatures showcase the unique skill in creating extremely small details, which are the technical characteristics of Persian painting that we admire the most today. No other culture has devoted as much attention to miniatures as Iran has.
The city flourished for a whole century, until the Afghan invasion in the beginning of the 18th century when it lost its importance; the capital became Shiraz, and later Tehran. However, Isfahan, the capital of two powerful dynasties, the Seljuks and the Safavids, remained the most renowned Iranian city.
With the Safavids, a glorious chapter of Iranian history came to an end. The Safavid Empire, along with the Ottoman and Mughal Empires, marked the final flourishing of Islamic civilization before Western imperialism took over. .
The secret of lasting attraction
Arthur Upham Pope, the founder of the Institute of Iranian Art and Archaeology in the United States who lived in Iran for many years, said that art is a gift and the main contribution of the Iranian people to the world, and that the first Iranian art has always been architecture, pre-Islamic and Islamic, and that the latter, rooted in strong faith and divine inspiration, is most richly represented in Safavid Isfahan.
Indeed, it can be said without hesitation that few countries possess such a large number of diverse architectural forms of enchanting beauty. The creation of these artistic wonders with their specific characteristics and homogeneity cannot in any way be a matter of chance.
In search of the secret of attraction of Iranian Islamic architecture, we find answers in the book Islamic Art and Spirituality by Prof. Seyyed Hossein Nasr, who states that in the inner dimension of Islamic tradition, one should seek for the key.
and its source and power that created and sustained its magical attraction throughout the centuries. Wherever Muslim grace flowed and still flows, that is where one should look for the source of the very act of creation that made sacred Islamic art possible, because it was only through this grace that it was possible to crystallize in the world of forms, time, and space the truths contained in the inner dimension of the Qur’an. … Indeed, this art could not perform such a spiritual function if it were not intimately connected to the form and content of Islamic revelation, since it sees the external source in the internal. From the perspective of Islamic metaphysics and theology, which see the source of all forms in God, for He is the knower of all things, and therefore the essence or form of all things have their reality in the divine Pen.
Prof. Nasr further states that Islamic art is derived from the manifestation of unity in the realm of multiplicity and diversity. It brilliantly reflects the unity of the divine principle and the dependence of all multiplicity on the One. It is the world of archetypes and indirect access to physical senses, and therefore serves as a bridge for the journey of the soul from the visible and audible to the invisible.
Islamic art is based on knowledge of a spiritual nature, knowledge that traditional masters of this art called hikmah or wisdom. It does not imitate external forms of nature, but reflects their principles. This art is based on the science of the inner nature, which deals with the inner reality of things rather than their external appearances. With the help of this science and through the grace of Islam, barakah, Islamic art manifests itself on the external plane of tangible existence. If we observe the portal of a building like the Shah Mosque [in Isfahan] with its stunning geometric and arabesque patterns, we will witness this truth by contemplating the intelligible world within the world of sensory forms.
By observing the almost unrealistically beautiful and harmonious patterns that adorn Islamic mosques, the deepest connection between this Such art, with its liberating beauty, elevates humanity towards its original divine dwelling…. Only that which emanates from the One can lead back to the One, concludes Prof. Nasr.
By uncovering the roots of art in the Islamic tradition, doors open to Unity that transcends the Islamic tradition and touches the hearts and minds of people from all traditions.
Sources:
1. Iran: Seven Faces of Civilization, Dr. Farzin Rezaeian, Sunrise Visual Innovations Ltd. Canada, 2007.
2. The Splendour of Iran, Volume I.-III., group of authors, Booth-Clibborn Editions, London, 2001.
3. Islamic Art and Spirituality, Prof. Seyyed Hossein Nasr, State University of New York Press, Albany, 1987.