In all ancient cultures of the world, ceramic objects of very beautiful shapes and decorations were made, but nowhere except in China did ceramic production lead to the production of porcelain. Europe first encountered porcelain in the 11th-12th century through trade connections with the Far East. The rare and exotic porcelain items thrilled Europeans with their immense craftsmanship, transparency, and shine. Therefore, the first expensive porcelain tableware that arrived at European courts rightfully earned the name “china”. The name porcelain is first mentioned by Marco Polo in his memoirs from 1298. It is believed that the name comes from the shiny, white walls of the utensils that were compared to porcellum, a type of seashell.
A porcelain plate in the shape of a begonia. The inner side is sky blue, and the outer side is rose purple. The vessel was used in the imperial palace during Wei Zong’s reign, towards the end of the Northern Song Dynasty.
What is the “secret” of porcelain production?
Porcelain is a type of of ceramics, and like all ceramics, it is made from the same basic material – clay, but it differs from other ceramics in composition and production process.
Porcelain is characterized by whiteness, strength, and transparency. Unlike porcelain, ordinary ceramics are more fragile, porous, and do not let light through; impermeability in ordinary ceramics is achieved only by glazing the surface.
The capital of Chinese porcelain
Chingtechen is a city with a long tradition of ceramic production dating back to the Han Dynasty era (since 200 BC). The city is located in a small basin rich in good clay in the northeastern part of Jiangxi Province. During the Chingte period (1004 – 1007 AD) of the Sung Dynasty, Emperor Chentsung ordered that all porcelain for imperial use be produced there. These products carried the royal brand Chingte, and since then the city has been called Chingtechen (Chingte City), although it is historically known as Hsinp’ing and Ch’angnanchen.
During the Ming Dynasty, the city became the main center for ceramic production. The porcelain industry in China dates back to ancient times and it has earned the title of “the Chinese porcelain capital”. During that time, the state operated twenty factories that exclusively produced porcelain for imperial use. These factories were managed by government officials. A record from 1443 tells us that overseeing production was a huge task as they would bake a total of 443,500 porcelain pieces at once. Workshops that were not under imperial control also quickly developed. Craftsmen, potters, and porcelain producers came from all over, as they needed thousands of hired workers daily. There is a record from the early 18th century, during the Ch’ing dynasty (1644-1911), by a workshop supervisor: “There are two to three hundred kilns here, and hundreds of thousands of masters and fire tenders. Many people make a living from porcelain.” The division of labor was highly precise, with seventy people involved in the production of just one piece. Manufacturing technology in the industry continuously improved over time. Instead of using bamboo knives as before, A rotating knife was introduced for shaping the vessel, which allowed for higher productivity and better quality. A new method of applying glaze by blowing replaced the old method of dipping objects in glaze, resulting in improved glaze quality.
In modern China, porcelain is produced in all provinces, but Chingtechen has maintained the title of “the porcelain capital of China” to this day.
The main characteristic of Chinese porcelain is its composition, which consists of kaolin and petuntse (Chinese stone). Kaolin is a whitish clay whose main component is the mineral kaolinite, which retains its white color when fired, while petuntse is a type of clay that can only be found in China. The porcelain mixture is fired at a very high temperature, above 1300°C, during which the heat-resistant kaolin does not melt, preserving the shape of the vessel, while petuntse melts to form a impermeable natural glass that glazes the surface of the vessel. Porcelain is formed when petuntse completely fuses with kaolin. Through high baking temperatures, in addition to transparency, another important quality of Chinese porcelain is obtained – hardness, which sometimes reached a level of 8 on the Mohs hardness scale, surpassing even the hardness of jade.
The discovery of Chinese porcelain
When and how the Chinese discovered porcelain is not known, but it is believed that this process developed gradually.
During the Shang Dynasty (16th – 11th century BC), Chinese potters used kaolin to make white ceramics that were pure and shiny, blue glazed ceramics that were extremely strong, almost impermeable, with a high gloss enamel. Since the basic characteristics of future porcelain can be seen in Shang ceramics (firing temperature of about 1200 °C, glazed surface), it is also called “proto-porcelain”.
Since the time of the Han Dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD), porcelain with a greenish glaze, known as celadon, has been produced. During the Three Kingdoms period (220 – 581 AD), precise firing temperatures were determined. The production and duration of firing porcelain objects, which were known for their solid and beautiful shapes, as well as shiny glazes of different colors (yellow, reddish-brown, and black enamel), were perfected. It was during this time that white porcelain, with a milky-white glaze, thin and translucent, began to be produced.
Many believe that the first true porcelain was made during the Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD). In this period, known as China’s “golden age,” the most famous types of porcelain were celadon and white porcelain. As the demand for porcelain grew, production spread throughout the country, production techniques improved, and the products gained popularity both in China and abroad. The most famous celadon was produced in the workshops of Yueh (Chechiang province), where over a hundred different types of porcelain objects with a bright glaze, shining like precious stones, resembling the sparkle of ice or jade, were made. Poets of that time described it as “the green color of a thousand mountain peaks” and “resembling dewdrops on “bud” of a lotus flower.”
The most famous white porcelain was crafted in the Hsing workshops (today’s Han-tan city), and it was praised as being “white like silver snow”. Another workshop in the city of Ch’angshih began using a new technique of applying color and patterns underneath the glaze.
The most famous workshops of the Sung dynasty
During the Sung dynasty (960-1279 A.D.), porcelain workshops were built throughout the country, leading to the establishment of six main centers of porcelain production: Ting, Yaochou, Chün, and Ch’ihchou in northern China, and Lungchüan and Chingtechen in southern China. Each of these centers specialized in different manufacturing techniques, glazes, shapes, and decorations.
Blue and white porcelain
During the Yüan dynasty (1271-1368 A.D.), a turning point occurred in the history of Chinese porcelain. Thanks to advancements in production, a new ratio of kaolin and petuntse mixture was defined, and the firing temperature was increased, enabling the production of high-quality blue and white porcelain.
Porcelain decorated under the glaze, in the first row blue-white porcelain.
The blue ornament was achieved by painting the cobalt oxide pattern on the unfired base. Then followed the application of a thin layer of transparent glaze, and a single firing at 1300°C. Since the decoration was painted before glazing, the products were known as porcelain with decoration under the glaze.
The traditional method of decoration, involving carving and engraving patterns on the body of the vessel, is increasingly losing its primacy and giving way to the new technique of painting and decorating, making painted porcelain the main trend in porcelain production. From the Yuan dynasty onwards, different colors of decoration and glaze are used, and the skill of porcelain making is increasingly combined with the skill of traditional painting.
In addition to blue-white porcelain, porcelain objects in red color under the glaze were also made. The production technology is similar to that of blue-white porcelain, but more complex. Instead of cobalt-based pigment, pigment is applied to the surface. Baked pottery is harder to control during baking. The vessels need to be baked in a reduction oven in order to reduce the oxygen. In these vessels, some areas would turn from red to gray during baking.
Blue and white porcelain was produced much more than red and white due to its easier production and popularity in other Asian and Islamic countries. Blue and white porcelain was the main porcelain product of China during the Ming dynasty (1368 – 1644), reaching its peak during the Ch’ing dynasty (1644 – 1911).
Although there were official imperial workshops that produced utensils for the court, it is known that a large number of workshops sent the more beautiful examples of utensils as taxes to the court, while the less beautiful ones were used for domestic purposes and for export.
Several factors contributed to the sudden increase in porcelain production during that time. On one hand, the state encouraged trade, and on the other hand, the development of the court administration, among which a class emerged. and educated intellectuals who appreciated and nurtured art. Porcelain was then first collected and presented as an artistic object.
Sung pottery is characterized by elegance, simple shapes, rich glaze, and charming design. The most famous five workshops were T’ing (province of Hepei), Chü (province of Henan), Ke (province of Chechiang), Chün (province of Henan), and Kuan.
The Ting workshop mainly produced white porcelain, known for its thin walls, soft glaze tones, and perfect shapes, which were decorated before glazing by engraving, carving, or imprinting. Initially, each piece of Ting pottery was individually engraved and fired in a separate mold. Later, decoration molds were used, and the pottery was fired in large quantities, enabling mass production. As they often applied re-firing, the edges of the vessel openings were rough due to incomplete glazing, so the rims were often lined with gold. um, silver or copper.
Fine and delicate cookware with creamy glazes, various shades of green-blue and very shiny, was made in the Chü workshop. The specific color was obtained by adding a mineral to the glaze (agate, carnelian), and there were four types of glaze: sky blue, sapphire blue, moon white, and turquoise. Since the production of Chü cookware lasted a short time, it is very rare and is considered a true treasure of ancient China.
The cookware is special because of the so-called flambé effect, where the body of the vessel is streaked with crimson red. This effect was achieved by adding copper shavings to the glaze. They described it as shiny “like a setting sun”. The glaze came in colors: moon white, sky blue, and rose purple. Each piece of Chün porcelain is unique and was highly valued even at that time, made exclusively for the imperial family.
The peculiarity of Ke porcelain is the cracked surface effect of the vessel, known as “golden threads and iron wires”. e, its cracked surface resembles a mesh of thin iron wire or golden thread. The color of the glaze is dusty greenish-blue, light greenish-blue, or yellow.
The Kuan workshop was established by the court, where their products were exclusively used, and therefore they were not available on the market. The dense glaze of this pottery gave the impression of exquisite greenish-white jade. Kuan pottery is also characterized by a decorative pattern of very small surface cracks, resembling overlapping ice cracks.
Multicolored porcelain
The next step in the development of porcelain production was decorating the pottery with decorations in various colors. The problem could not be solved by painting colors on the unfired pottery, so the ceramicists came up with the idea of applying a second glaze-enamel of different colors on the already white-glazed porcelain. This production process was technically much more difficult because it required two firings. Part of the process was the same as for blue and white porcelain: a part of the pattern was painted in blue under the glaze. Azure (because the color blue that would be applied to the glaze had not been discovered), followed by glazing and high-temperature firing. After firing, the pottery would be painted with red, yellow, green, and purple enamel over the glaze, and then fired again at a lower temperature, 800-900 °C.
Over time, different ways of combining blue underglaze and colored enamel developed. In the early 15th century, a technique known as doucai, meaning “competing colors” or “contrasting colors,” was created. The outlines would be drawn with blue before the first firing, and the design would be completed with colors over the glaze. The precision required for this type of decoration made it very difficult and expensive. Most pieces decorated with the doucai method are small in size due to the expensive manufacturing process.
The porcelain of the Ch’ing dynasty (the dynasty that preceded modern China) surpassed the production techniques of previous periods. Thanks to new measures for adding ingredients and temperature control. In the process of firing, craftsmen not only improved the quality of painted glazes but also created over a hundred enamel colors and several types of matte enamel. Ever since the discovery of blue enamel color, it has been applied to white glazed pottery, along with black color.
The discovery of opaque enamel colors and the emergence of a new technique called fencai, meaning “colors without shine”, were important. By adding arsenic to the glass white glaze, an opaque white enamel color was created, which served as a base for other colors. The introduction of opaque glazes expanded the color palette, as well as the range of shades and color transitions. Initially, pink enamel colors were most commonly used, which is why this technique is best known as famille-rose (“pink family”). Alongside the famille-rose technique, the famille-verte technique (“green family”) is also well-known.
Porcelain held a special place in Chinese history, as can be deduced from its importance to the imperial court – imperial porcelain was directly associated with the power and prestige of the ruling class. He only catered to the needs of the court. For various court festivities (birthdays, anniversaries), entirely new series of porcelain were made.
Thanks to the fact that the court itself demanded and encouraged the development of porcelain, specimens of amazing beauty, finesse, and precision were created. Imperial porcelain was described as “white as jade, shiny as a mirror, thin as paper, and with a clear sound like a bell.”
In addition to quality, porcelain intended for imperial use differed from that for the general public in terms of decorations and paintings used for embellishments. The main decorative motifs on imperial tableware were dragons, phoenixes, and Chinese pines, motifs that represented longevity, prosperity, happiness, etc. Decorations on tableware for sale and export included birds, flowers, scenes from theatrical plays, swords, horses, and figures.
The shape and color of imperial tableware depended on its purpose. For the Ch’ing dynasty, the position of the imperial official determined the color and pattern that could be used on the table. The pattern and image on the tableware were often They were driven by desires for good luck or long life, immortality and wealth.
The production of porcelain in China showcases how a craft can become much, much more – it can become true art.